Ali's Conscientious Objector Status example essay topic

Some people viewed me as a hero. Some said that what I did was wrong. But everything I did was according to my conscience. I wasn't trying to be a leader. I just wanted to be free". Muhammad Ali made this statement at the conclusion of his lengthy battle with the United States over his conviction of refusing to submit to his induction into the Armed Forces.

Ali's actual conflict with the United States began in 1964 with his refusal to accept his induction into the Armed Forces, and ended in 1971 when the Supreme Court of the United States overturned their previous refusal of granting Ali conscientious objector status. However, to examine Ali's struggles with the United States government, one must examine the factors that led Ali to making his decision to refuse his induction into the Armed Forces. These factors include growing up in a southern state, Ali's thrust into the national spotlight, the social changes that took place in the 1950's and 1960's, Ali's conversion to the Nation of Islam, and the faith Ali demonstrated in his beliefs. Each of these factors helped to create the atmosphere necessary, not only for Ali to make his decision, but also for the nation's reaction to Ali's decision, and the consequences that followed. Born Cassius Clay Jr. in Louisville, Kentucky on January 17, 1942, Muhammad Ali grew up in a time where southern states were governed by an unwritten law of Jim Crow and segregation. Even though, in Louisville, Jim Crow was not a pervasive as it was in the deeper south, where lynching was commonplace, it was something that was ever-present.

"Kentuckians just served their racism with a gentler touch". (Bingham & Wallace, 14) In Louisville, "colored [people] couldn't stay in the hotels until 1960. There was only one movie theatre for colored [people]. Most big stores downtown wouldn't serve [colored people] food or drink". (Ali, 34) Ali saw the segregation and began to envision a better life. Even in his youth, Ali was extremely socially conscientious.

He would regularly follow the news and would become extremely emotional when he would hear or read about the injustices that many blacks faced. "When [Ali] would hear about some injustice against blacks, [he'd] lay up in [his] bed and cry all night". (Ali, 34) One such incident was the murder of Emmett Till. Ali was so angered by the incident that he "thought of a way to get back at white people for his death", when Ali and a friend threw two iron shoe rests in the railroad tracks to force them to tear up the tracks. (Ali, 35) Segregation and Jim Crow was so instilled in society in Louisville, Kentucky that few would ever question it. Muhammad Ali was not one of these people.

He often asked his father "Why can't I be rich?" Clay Sr. would just show young Ali his brown colored hands and say, "That's why we can't be rich". (Bingham & Wallace, 15) Despite this ever-present idea of segregation, Ali was able to find success. Muhammad Ali was viewed by many (including himself) as a gifted child. With this gift, Ali felt, came a responsibility.

"God made us all, but some of us are made special. It was this self-instilled responsibility that drove Ali to consistently speak out against the segregation, and racism he saw in the United States, and the injustices that many, not only blacks, were facing. Ironically, it was one injustice committed against Ali that led him into boxing. After a much-fabled incident in where his bicycle got stolen, 12-year-old Ali entered a small boxing club run by an off-duty police officer, whom he initially sought out to report his stolen bicycle. Once there, Ali was talked into joining the club, and from there his immense talent was discovered. (Hauser, 18) His parents, viewing boxing as a way for young Ali to stay out of trouble, supported Ali's decision to take up the sport.

Once Ali began to train, it didn't take him long to become a well- known name across Louisville. By 1960, Ali had proven himself to be one of the best amateur boxers in the nation, but remained relatively unknown in the media. (Bingham & Wallace, 25) This would soon change, when in 1960, Ali was thrust into the national spotlight. In the summer of 1960, after prevailing in the Olympic trials and a stellar amateur career, Ali won the right to represent the United States in Rome at the 1960 Olympic games. Ali made the most from this opportunity. He would move easily through the first three rounds of the Olympic games, and win the gold medal bout over Zbigniew Pietrykowski of Poland in a dominating display.

(Hauser, 24) When Ali returned to the states, he was a national hero. He fit all the credentials to become a household name. He was "young, handsome, entertaining, and gifted, he radiated the aura of an All-American boy". (Hauser, 28) Upon his return, Ali decided to become a professional boxer. It wasn't too long before Ali became a household name. Boxing was an immensely popular sport among blacks and whites alike, yielding such names a Jack Johnson, Sugar Ray Robinson, and Joe Louis.

(Trotter, 488) Ali, however, stood out because he was one of the first athletes, not to mention black athletes that broke the trend of modesty seen in sports. Ali was extremely outspoken and demanded attention most everywhere he went. Ali's thrust into the national spotlight, and a personal belief that along with power comes a responsibility to use that power for the social good, helped him become a figurehead in the national media. Ali did just what he believed in, consistently standing up for what he felt was right. Muhammad Ali's outspokenness could be seen even at an early age.

His emotional responses to social events, and his never modest attitude existed as a young athlete in Louisville. However, some of this could be credited to the spirit of the times Ali was growing up in. Ali, as a child of the 1950's, was growing up in the heart of the Civil Rights Movement, and saw many influential leaders make the most of their life in the spotlight. It was from these people, that Ali developed his belief that with power and influence comes responsibility. Young Ali would see the 1954 Brown vs. Board decision forcing the desegregation of public schools, and the many non-violent demonstrations that leaders like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. led. Young Ali would also see the negative reactions that white America, especially in the south, demonstrated to these events.

It was these negative reactions that young Ali responded to the most, and would later strive to prevent. The civil rights movement in the United States led to many black Americans calling for justice, and becoming outspoken against the discrimination they were facing. However, it wasn't until 1964 that any serious legislation was enacted to protect the right of minorities in the United States. (Trotter, 536 One group that actively used their positions in the spotlight to speak out against the discrimination of the black race was that of athletes. Even before the 1960's, sports figures were beginning the crusade for racial equality. This crusade was not achieved through words; so much as it was through actions.

Again and again black athletes proved that they were superior to their white competitors. This can be seen with the performance of Jesse Owens in the 1936 Olympic games, and with the crowing of Joe Louis as heavyweight champion of the world. (Gorn, 55) During the 1960's, black athletes began to become more outspoken. Many, such as college basketball great, Elvin Hays, turned down lucrative professional contracts on moral grounds, while many amateur athletes were considering a boycott for black athletes in the 1968 Olympic games. (Gorn, 65) All of this protest brought to the spotlight, the state of civil rights in the United States. Another group that was deeply involved in the civil rights movement was the religious group known as the Nation of Islam.

Started in the early 1930's by the black leader Elijah Muhammad, the Nation of Islam gained immense popularity across the United States during the 1950's. The Nation of Islam went from only four temples in 1945, to fifteen in 1955 and fifty by the early 1960's. At the same time, membership soared from an estimated one thousand to ten thousand registered members of the Muslim church. However, in the early 1960's, the Nation of Islam began to take criticism from both black and white America, and in 1961 was declared "un-American" by the California state legislature.

(Marqusee, 61) The Nation of Islam's most well known member was Malcolm X, who spent the majority of the 1950's speaking for racial equality for the Nation of Islam. It was this Nation of Islam that Ali would eventually become an active member of. Muhammad Ali first became interested in the Nation of Islam in 1958 when, in Atlanta for a tournament, he met a Nation of Islam recruiter outside a mosque. After going inside the mosque, Ali heard a message of black pride that "hit home". Ali was enthralled with the idea of blacks who were not afraid to speak out against white injustice. (Bingham & Wallace, 63) Ali began reading the Nation of Islam's weekly paper, and regularly attending meetings.

However, worried that his association with the Nation of Islam would ruin his professional career, Ali kept it a secret. (Hauser, 97) Ali soon became friends, and close associates with such prominent members of the Nation of Islam as Malcolm X and eventually Elijah Muhammad. Ali officially joined the Nation in 1962, but continued to keep his membership a secret from the public, saying in 1963 that he was not a Muslim. (Marqusee, 70) However, rumors of Ali's conversion to the Muslim religion, and his continued sightings with prominent members of the Nation of Islam, brought the media into an uproar over his religious status.

(Bingham & Wallace, 71). In 1964, after his fight with Sonny Liston for the heavyweight championship of the world, Ali finally confessed to being an active member of the Nation of Islam. (Bingham & Wallace, 82) Reaction to the confession was swift and furious. Many said that Ali's conversion to Islam was the worst thing that happened to the sport of boxing, and could not be tolerated. Ali, when he announced his conversion, was prepared for the backlash from white America, but he was not prepared for the criticism he would receive from prominent black leaders. Ali's announcement that he was a member of the Nation of Islam also brought with it a contention between Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X for his allegiance.

(Bingham & Wallace, 87) Malcolm X dissented from the Nation of Islam, forming a new black-nationalist organization, and attempted to lure Ali to join him. Ali refused to leave the "honorable Elijah Muhammad", and would remain a member of the Nation of Islam, becoming one of its most outspoken members. Muhammad Ali was now one of the most prominent figures in America, drawing criticism from both white and black America, just as he was about to face his most important battle of his life. Ali would soon embark on his long journey opposing his draft into the Armed Forces during the Vietnam War. However, Ali would not be the only one opposing induction into the Vietnam War. Through out much of the 1960's, tension surmounted in a conflict in Vietnam.

America's newly adapted policy of containment brought it to enter in the civil war that was taking place. America first participated in the conflict by giving monetary support to the French armies that were engaged in battle. However, by 1964 U.S. began sending troops to the region. By 1965, 25,000 U.S. troops were in combat in Vietnam, by 1965 184,000 troops were participating, and by the end of 1969, over 500,000 U.S. troops were in combat in Vietnam. The war in Vietnam brought with it much displeasure from American citizens. Many groups, rich and poor, white and black, began to stage protest against U.S. involvement in the war.

Some of these protests, as was the case with Kent State University, became violent when attempts to break up the protests were made. African American displeasure with the war stemmed from the fact that the war "undercut efforts to generate resources for rebuilding black urban areas ravaged by urban violence and social and economic exploitation", and the fact it offered little opportunity for African Americans to rise in the ranks of the military. (Trotter, 583) As most Americans do, Ali registered with Selective Services upon his 18th birthday in 1960. At the time, America was not involved with any war, and Ali was just beginning his association with the Nation of Islam.

In March of 1962, Ali, then legally known as Cassius Clay, was officially classified as 1-A (available for the draft). Then, in January of 1964, Ali was ordered to the Armed Forces Induction Center in Florida for the military qualifying exam. Ali passed the physical portion of the exam with no complications. However, the fifty-minute aptitude test was a completely different matter.

(Hauser, 142) Ali had never been a great student in school, struggling with both reading and mathematics. "When I looked at the questions", Ali would later say, "I just didn't know the answers. I didn't even know how to start about finding the answers". The result of Ali's test was a score of 78. This score put Ali in the sixteenth percent tile, well below the passing grade of 30. (Hauser, 143) With disbelief of the validity of Ali's first test, he is ordered to again take test just two months later.

This time, Ali took the test in the presence of three Army psychologists. Once again, Ali failed, and in March of 1964 was reclassified 1-Y (not qualified under current standards for service in the armed forces). (Hauser, 143) Uproar followed this reclassification of Ali, as many continued to question the validity of the test, as well as the standards. Many asked, "How smart do you have to be to drive a truck, and peel potatoes". (Hauser, 143) The outbreak of opposition to this announcement was so strong that Secretary of the Army Stephen Alies felt compelled to write the House of Representatives to explain the Army's stance.

In his letter, Alies stated:" ... The requirements of today's Army do not allow for acceptance of those personnel not offering a reasonable value to the defense effort. The induction standards must be such that the new members of the Army are capable of learning new skills and applying them. In Summary, it was my decision that Cassius Clay should be rejected for inductions due to his inability to meet prescribed minimum standards". (Hauser, 143) In February of 1966, Ali's lawyers filed the first request for draft exempt status on procedural grounds. In March, however, the request was changed in order for Ali to invoke his religion, saying "the Holy Koran forbids Muslims from fighting wars on the side of unbelievers".

(Bingham & Wallace, 126) In late March, Ali's draft exempt status on the grounds of conscientious objector was denied, which prompted an appeal by Ali to the Kentucky Appeal Board. By law, the appeal board is required to refer the case to the U.S. Justice department for an advisory recommendation. The U.S. Justice Department, after interviewing more than thirty friends, acquaintances, and family members, recommended that Ali's conscientious objector status be sustained. (Hauser, 130) However, the Kentucky Appeal Board decided to disregard this recommendation and deny Ali his conscientious objector status on the grounds that he did not meet all three requirements needed to obtain a conscientious objector draft exemption. (Hauser, 131) At the same time that Ali's draft exemption request was taking place, the U.S. expanded its draft call-up in response to the intensifying of the Vietnam War. In early 1966, the passing score in the intelligence test was lowered from 30 percent to 15 percent, making Ali's score of 16 percent a passing grade.

Ali was again re-classified as 1-A. (Marqusee, 162) Ali was adamant that he would not accept induction into any branch of the Armed Forces because it was in opposition to the teachings of the Muslim religion. After hearing of his denial of draft exemption, Ali was barraged with questions from reporters from around the country. After fielding degrading questions, such as "do you even know where Vietnam is? ", Ali was asked what he thought about the Vietcong. From this question came a headline that would follow Ali where ever he would go, and would go on to become his most famous quote to date and set off a political avalanche that would be the focus of Ali's life for the next 6 years. To this question Ali would answer, "I ain't got no quarrel with them Vietcong".

(Bingham & Wallace, 117) In April of 1967, the day Ali was long fearing came. Ali was ordered to report for induction into the Armed Forces. When Ali showed up at the assigned board in Houston, Texas, he was met with a barrage of demonstrators, most of whom were encouraging his stance against the war in Vietnam. (Ali, 166) Ali was led into a room where about 30 recruits were standing waiting to hear their name called to step forward and accept their induction into the U.S. Armed Forces. Finally, Ali hears "Cassius Clay - Army" Ali does not move. Again, "Cassius Clay!

Will you please step forward and be inducted into the Armed Forces of the United States?" Ali again makes no movement. (Ali, 172) Finally, Ali is asked to follow a senior officer into his office, where it is explained the severity of his actions here and he is given a second chance. Ali again refuses the induction. (Ali, 173) Ali formally refused his induction into the Armed Forces, and was now facing criminal charges for evading the draft. In less than an hour, the New York State Athletic Commission announced that it had decided to suspend Ali's boxing license, and to withdraw recognition of him as World Heavyweight champion.

The World Boxing Association, as well as the Texas and California athletic commissions immediately followed suit. These measures made it impossible for Ali to fight in the United States. (Bingham & Wallace, 160) The public and media also responded harshly to Ali's choice to refuse induction. Many were calling for his immediate conviction and incarceration. However, Ali remained a role model for many who opposed the war, regardless of their reasons.

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. even went so far as to advocate filing for conscientious objector status for any young man who opposes the war in Vietnam. Many young black men considered Ali a hero for his stance for his beliefs, while many more considered him pompous and arrogant for considering himself "better" than those who were fighting. In either event, Ali's refusal to accept induction brought with it much criticism. Ali would live in exile for the next 4 years, drying up most of his savings, and leaving him with little ability to earn an income to support his family. Ali was convicted for willful refusal to submit to induction into the Armed Forces in 1967.

Ali appealed his conviction to the Supreme Court of the United States on the grounds that his denial for conscientious objector status was wrongfully applied. Ali's lawyers contended that since "the Appeal Board gave no reason for the denial of a conscientious objector exemption, and it is impossible to determine on which of the three grounds offered in the Justice Department's letter that the board relied, Ali's conviction must be reversed". (U.S. Supreme Court, 1) These three grounds being that the registrant must show he is opposed to war in any form, that his opposition is based upon religious training, and that his objection is sincere. (U.S. Supreme Court, 2) The U.S. Supreme Court heard the case in April of 1971. In the hearing, Ali continued to contest that he indeed met all three grounds offered for conscientious objector status. He claimed that "Elijah Muhammad and the Holy Koran tell us that were are not to participate in wars on the side of nobody who are on the side of nonbelievers, and this is a Christian country and not a Muslim country... So we are not... to even as much as aid in passing a cup of water to even the wounded". (U.S. Supreme Court, 5) The Court conceded that Ali's beliefs are indeed bases on religious training, and they did not question the sincerity of Ali's beliefs.

However, since the appeal board made no indication as to which of the three grounds Ali failed to manifest, and the government concedes that two of these grounds are met, there is no way to determine if it is indeed this third ground that the appeal board based its decision on. In this event, since Ali's conviction rested on the denial of this exemption status, the conviction must be overturned. (U.S. Supreme Court, 6-7) Ali was declared a free man. With this Supreme Court victory, Ali was asked if he was planning to seek legal action to recover damages from those who hounded him during his exile. Ali only answered that "They only did what they thought was right at the time... I can't condemn them for doing what they think was right".

(Bingham & Wallace, 249) Despite winning his courtroom battle over his draft exemption, Ali lost quite a bit of respect in both the eyes of the media, and in the eyes of the general public. Ali was reinstated to fight in the U.S., and would eventually regain the World heavyweight championship during his most glorious days as a boxer; he would never again have the impact that the young Ali had in America. Muhammad Ali's fight for freedom from his conviction for evading the draft lasted seven years, yet the factors that led him to make his stand have contributed all Ali's life. Facing discrimination as a youth, being thrust into national spotlight, his conversion to the Nation of Islam, and the political atmosphere in America all contributed to lead Ali to make a stand against induction. Ali's battle for freedom and his reasons for his stand, can be summed up best by Ali himself: "I never thought of myself as great when I refused to go into the Army. All I did was stand up for what I believed.

There were people who thought the war in Vietnam was right. And those people, if they went to war, acted just as brave as I did. There were people who tried to put me in jail. Some of them were hypocrites, but others did what they thought was proper and I can't condemn them for following their conscientious either.

People say I made a sacrifice, risking jail and my whole career. But God told Abraham to kill his son and Abraham was willing to do it, so why shouldn't I follow what I believed? Standing up for my religion made my happy; it wasn't a sacrifice. When people got drafted and sent to Vietnam and didn't understand what the killing was about and came home with one leg and couldn't get jobs, that was a sacrifice. But I believed in what I was doing, so no matter what the government did to be, it wasn't a loss". Bibliography page

Bibliography

Ali, Muhammad. The Greatest: My Own Story. (New York, NY: Random House, 1975) Bingham, Howard, and Max Wallace.
Muhammad Ali's Greatest Fight: Cassius Clay vs. the United States of America. (New York, NY: M. Evans and Company, Inc., 2000) Gorn, Elliot J.
Muhammad Ali: The People's Champ. (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1995) Hauser, Thomas.
Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times. (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1991) Marqusee, Mike.
Redemption Song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties. (New York, NY: Verso, 1999) Trotter, Joe William.
The African American Experience. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001) U.
S. Supreme Court. Cassius Clay a. k. a. Ali vs. United States of America. Supreme Court Docket No. : JU 6.8: 403. Case No. 403 US 698. Washington D.C., G.P. O June 28, 1971.