American And British Objectives example essay topic

On June 18, 1812, President Madison of the United States and Congress declared war on Great Britain. On June 25, the French emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte led his army in Europe across the Nieman River into Russia. (1) Although these two events were thousands of kilometers apart they were directly connected to each other. To some extent, the Americans declared war in protest against measures that were part of Britain's effort to defeat Napoleon with the use of blockades. There are many interesting aspects to the War of 1812, including the fact of why it even happened.

Britain and the United States had more reasons to remain friends than to start a war. The intent of this essay is to examine American and British objectives during this war, and despite the Treaty of Ghent, conclude Canadians won the War of 1812. Britain, in their eagerness to starve out France, set up a series of blockades along the European coast. (2) These blockades sought to exclude neutral ships from trading with France and her Allies. The very powerful British Royal Navy would search American vessels, most times within sight of land. British deserters provided England with the excuse it needed to search American ships at sea.

Desertions were commonplace in the Royal Navy, harsh treatment and punishments were a way of life to British seamen. In comparison, crews on American merchant vessels enjoyed much better treatment, lots of food, good pay and above all, limited punishment. Royal Navy boarding parties arbitrarily selected deserters who, for their crimes were whipped, strung up by the yardarm or keelhauled. (3) As a bonus, the British impressed, kidnapped would be a better word, the most fit and healthy among the American crews into the Royal Navy, and in most cases seized the cargo. Facing well armed British warships, American merchant ships were powerless to resist and were sometimes captured outright. This treatment of American people and vessels at sea would not go unnoticed by the newly formed colonies of the United States.

In his speech to congress June 1, 1812 President Madison anger at the British Royal Navy and their tactics on the open seas, was very apparent " Thousands of American citizens under the safeguard of public law and the national flag have been torn from their country and everything dear to them... Against this crying enormity, which Great Britain would be so prompt to avenge if committed against herself, the United States have in vain exhausted remonstrance's and expostulations. ' (4) This speech by Madison to Congress also cited violations of territorial waters, the blockade of European trade and the British influence on Indian uprisings in the west. The Twelve Congress, which received Madison's war message proved to be dominated by a group of young men known as the 'War Hawks'. (5) These men were chiefly from the west and south who resented the injuries inflicted on the United States by Great Britain during the War for Independence, and were seeking retribution.

(6) Like many other Americans, they believed the manifest destiny of the United States was to control all of British North America. This American dream of major conquest of North America was made clear in a speech given by Congressman Richard Johnston of Kentucky 'I shall never die contented until I see her [Britain] expulsion from North America, and her territories incorporated with United States. ' (7) Mr. Felix Grundy concurred with Mr. Johnston by stating 'I am willing to receive the Canadians as adopted brethren; ... I therefore feel anxious not only to add the Floridas to the south but the Canadas to the north of this Empire... ' (8) America now had their major objective for the war and despite objections by New England and New York, war was declared by a slim margin on June 18, 1812. Logically this war was a serious threat to Canada, since it was only in North America that the U.S. could hope to defeat the British.

Geographically, the struggle between Great Britain and United States would produce different effects in the regions of British North America. The Maritime colonies under the protection of the Royal Navy, passed through the war almost unscathed. (9) In Lower Canada the war also caused little hardship, and the defeat of the Americans at Chateauguay was the only real threat. But Upper Canada, turned out to be the scene of the majority of the conflict. The British in Canada were badly outnumbered by the Americans at the onset of the war, the superiority of numbers by Americans was overwhelming. How could 300,000 Canadians possibly defend themselves against 8,000,000 Americans?

(10) However, the population statistics were not the difference in this war, the armies would be the deciding factor. The British had 4,500 regular troops in Canada. These soldiers were very tough, disciplined veterans of war, many had come from campaigns in Europe, and knew how to fight. The entire United States had more than 10,000 regulars, most of them poorly trained and ill prepared for confrontation with British regulars.

(11) Strategically the Canadians held a solid edge. The waterways were controlled by the presence of the Royal Navy, these water routes proved to be an important key to communications and mobility. Most roads were muddy, cart trodden routes that took time to traverse. Supplies, weapons and troops had to moved by water. Messages from the St. Lawrence all the way to Lake Superior could be sent by British canoe, without fear of attack. The Americans on the other hand had to negotiate thick forests and swamps to get a message through.

(12) Since most Americans did not support the war, civilian moral was a problem, a detrimental factor throughout the war. The only thing united about United States was its name. While 'War Hawks' from the south and west of America cheered the declaration of war, New England and New York condemned it as 'Madison's War' named after President James Madison. (13) In Canada, there was a strong apathy to war. Canadians feared they would be overwhelmed by American forces and to resist would be futile. Another potential problem faced by Canadians was the presence of American settlers, the loyalists, and the fear they would aide and abet an invasion by American forces.

(14) There were some desertions, but was not a factor in the final outcome. Oddly enough, poorly trained troops were not the major problem for the Americans, it was their command. The seven generals commanding the army had seen better days. All had served their Country with distinction during the fight for independence, but that was thirty years ago. (15) These sixty year old men had not fought in three decades. Consequently, they had failed to keep up with modern ways of war and were not the best choice to lead an invasion against Canada.

Henry Dearborn, the senior major general, was overweight and unable to mount a horse, he had to lead his troops from a buckboard. (16) Regardless, Dearborn drew up a master plan designed to deliver a series of blows that would assure a quick victory for the United States. (17) The Americans believed the conquest of Canada would be 'a mere matter of marching. ' (18) This assumption by the Americans would prove to be their downfall. The hastily drawn up American plan of invasion included four invasion forces that would cross the border at about the same time. One would move from Fort Detroit cross the river to capture Fort Amherstburg.

From Sackett's Harbour and Fort Niagara in New York State, two other forces would set out. Moving north from Lake Champlain they would link up with a fourth group in an attempt to capture Montreal, Canada's main city. (19) It seemed like a good idea, by capturing key points along the 1000 mile route from Detroit to Montreal, the Americans could seal up the waterways and seize a quick victory. The initial assault from Detroit was under the command of General William Hull, the governor of Michigan and hero of the revolution. Weeks before the proclamation of war on June 18, 1812 he began marching north with 2000 militiamen and regulars from Ohio. (20) The invading American army, commanded by Hull, crossed the river from Fort Detroit into present day Windsor, and issued this proclamation, ' The United States offer you peace, liberty and security' the manifesto ended 'Your choice lies between these and war, slavery and destruction.

' (21) Aided by Indian allies, a Canadian victory at Michilimackinac in Michigan and capturing Fort Dearborn, forced Hull to retreat from Fort Amherstburg to Fort Detroit. (22) General Isaac Brock, commander of the army in Upper Canada and the administrator of the provincial government, a potential nemesis for Hull, would seize the initiative. Brock, an intelligent 27 year old army veteran, had for five years seen that war with the U.S. was inevitable. (23) Brock realized a defensive war would not save Upper Canada. An immediate victory was necessary to give confidence in the Canadian people. In a brilliant tactical move, Brock took the offensive and invaded American territory.

The American force stationed in Fort Detroit numbered 2,000 compared to the British army of 1,300 men. (24) The ingenuity and savvy of General Brock during the taking of Detroit, was brilliant and very successful. The British belief that the Indian allies would bring success in this war, was evident by the arrival of Tecumseh to join up with General Brock at Fort Amherstburg. (25) The two regarded each other with mutual respect. Then the pair sat together and mapped out a battle plan to defeat Hull's army and capture Fort Detroit. Military strategy and ingenuity displayed by Brock was instrumental in Canada's sense of identity, Canadian military superiority would be a key factor throughout the war.

The strategy to capture Fort Detroit was complete with ruses and tactics that played on fear and terror. Brock had gathered a force of 300 regulars, 600 Indians and 400 Canadian militiamen. Although outnumbered, Brock dressed his militiamen in redcoats to make the Americans believe they were up against a large contingent of regulars. (26) On the night of August 15, Tecumseh led his fiercely painted warriors across the river and surrounded the fort, cutting off Hull's army. To frighten their foes, the warriors war whooped and danced around bonfires letting out blood curdling cries all night. In the morning Brock led his force across the river while Tecumseh and his warriors continued to holler war cries over the sounds of British cannons.

The shelling did little damage but totally unnerved Hull, the fort commander. With visions of an Indian massacre of his troops and the scalping of women and children, Hull collapsed. (27) There seemed to be only one solution for Hull. Hull dispatched a courier with a white flag to negotiate a surrender with the British. Brock was surprised to say the least but, his plan was a complete success. The American invasion of Canada was a disaster and in less than three hours it was all over.

This victory left the British in control of the Great Lakes allowing Brock to concentrate on the main frontier at Niagara. It also demonstrated to Canadians that the Americans were far from invincible and could be beaten. In Canada, Isaac Brock was the Man of the Hour. It was a different story for Hull, he was court-martial led, found guilty of cowardice and was sentenced to face a firing squad. President Madison heard of this and pardoned Hull, taking into account the gallant part he played in the fight for independence. (28) The American troops stationed at Fort Detroit cursed Hull's name till the day he died.

Brock's heroics would not stop there, following his triumph at Detroit, he quickly proceeded to the Niagara peninsula where he believed the Americans were preparing to attack. Meanwhile, General Stephen Van Rensselaer had no idea that Hull had been defeated at Detroit. His assignment was to keep the British occupied and off balance until Hull had secured the Canadian fort at Amherstburg. (29) Queenston was an important objective for the Americans, it was the key to the Niagara peninsula. General Brock was expecting an attack at Fort George when he received word that a large force of Americans had crossed the river at Queenston. Canadians, when they recall the battle, depict the red-coated General galloping on his white horse to Queenston to take command.

The Americans by this time had captured the Heights and the British cannon. General Brock led his men up the slopes to regain the territory, his tall, bright coloured figure made a perfect target for American guns. (30) When he fell, his men, spurred on by the bravery of Brock, rushed up the slope, captured the position and eventually chased the enemy back across the river. The loss of Brock was devastating, but his skill in strategy and quickness of decision was instrumental in Canadian successes during the first year of war.

Brock, even in death, had inspired his troops to crucial victory at Queenston. The American defeat at Queenston had been a total and absolute disaster; a severe blow to the American war effort. For Van Rensselaer it spelled disgrace. He had lost most of his elite troops, all his best officers and his entire force nearly destroyed, rendering it incapable of mounting any operations in the field. (31) Ten days after the surrender, Van Rensselaer bitterly resigned his command in despair. (32) The British victory at Queenston has been called the most important battle ever fought on Canadian soil.

It did not win the war, but it dealt a serious blow to American morale from which they never fully recovered. By 1813, the failure of the U.S. to their objectives of 1812 led to the replacement of the Secretary of war, Dr. Eustis, by John Armstrong. (33) Armstrong had a great deal of energy but lacked decisive decision making. Armstrong's plan for invasion was tactically a good idea, but his decision to have Major General Dearborn execute his plan, was a mistake.

The old General was in poor heath and very timid when it came time to a fight. (34) A combined naval and military attack on the Niagara peninsula was eventually thrown back at Stoney Creek. This surprise attack at Stoney Creek was led by Lt. Col. John Harvey and surprised a American force of over 3000. Harvey led a night raid on June 5, 1813 that netted them a victory and two American Generals.

(35) The main body of this U.S. army retreated in confusion into the night. This incident had a humiliating effect on the Americans, and they remained at Fort George, hemmed in by a much smaller British force for several months. The British had generally been on the defensive in 1813 but did manage to engage the enemy in several separate offensive actions. In February a party of Glengarrians commanded by Col. George Macdonell raided and destroyed the fort at Ogdensburg. (36) In May, while the Americans were engaged at Niagara, Sir George Provost proceeded with a force from Kingston in an unsuccessful attempt at Sackett's Harbour. Due to the lack of American successes during the Niagara campaign and the precarious hold on Fort George, Dearborn was requested to resign.

If Dearborn had been a poor choice to execute Armstrong's plan, his replacement was even worse. Major General James Wilkinson was called in by Secretary Armstrong to succeed where Dearborn had failed. (37) The campaign to capture Montreal involved two American Armies. One under Major James Wilkinson was to march on the city via the St. Lawrence valley. The second, commanded by Major General Hampton, planned to traverse the Champlain Valley and meet up with Wilkinson in Montreal. Combined they represented the largest American force to set foot on Canadian soil, a staggering 13,000 men.

(38) The defence force in Lower Canada numbered less than a 1000 men. Although outnumbered, the Canadians would use discipline and ingenuity to prevail. French Canadian involvement in the war came at Chateauguay. The Les Voltigeur Canadians under the command of the very popular Lieutenant Colonel Charles d' Irumberry de Salaberry used unique tactics to defeat Hampton. (39) Known as a harsh but fair leader, de Salaberry prepared a crack squad of troops drilled in the art of North American bush fighting. This specialized force was made up of a small number of Canadian officers but most were habitats loyal to Lower Canada.

Daily maneuvers consisted of enhancing flexibility, mobility with an emphasis on sharp shooting. (40) The Voltigeur, by September, 1813 were a hardened, elite and cohesive outfit of 500 men prepared for war. De Salaberry force numbered between 400 and 500 Voltigeur and 150 Indians pitted against a U.S. contingent of 7000 men. The Voltigeur used guerrilla tactics and night raids which unnerved and intimidated the American troops. Hampton's plan to counteract the Voltigeur harassment was to send 1500 men through the swamp and bush to flank the Canadians. The remaining force would move down the north side of the river to surround the Voltigeur.

(41) Splitting the American forces aided in their defeat. The troops Hampton had sent to outflank the Voltigeur had bogged down in the swamps. This gave De Salaberry the opportunity to ambush the main U.S. force from the north. Then and there De Salaberry decided on a plan of action; the Voltigeur were to sound bugles from all four quarters, this created confusion in the American ranks. The ruse succeeded, Hampton believed he was facing a much larger force.

(42) This illusion was further amplified when 1,200 reserves from Kingston under command of Colonel 'Red George' Macdonell arrived, surprising American troops on the flank. (43) Almost immediately bugles sounded the attack of the Voltigeur, Indians began their war whoops and blood curdling screams and started sniping from the trees and the woods. Simultaneously the outnumbered Voltigeur delivered volley after volley into the American ranks. Hampton believed he was not only facing superior numbers but, was convinced he was on the verge of being obliterated. (44) Messages from his flanking troops that they were being besieged by overwhelming forces only served to reinforce his assumption. Some Americans fled into the woods or surrendered outright.

After holding a meeting with his officers, Hampton decided to begin a orderly withdrawal the next morning. It was far from orderly, the Voltigeurs and Indians in pursuit came upon American equipment, personal supplies and discarded knapsacks, symbols of an disillusioned and defeated army in retreat. (45) Harassed all night De Salaberry's troops, the Americans made for the safety of the U.S. border. Its odd that a recently conquered people, the French Canadians, had vigorously defended itself against the self styled liberators.

Charles de Salaberry and his Voltigeurs saved Canada from an early national death. Wilkinson and his planned invasion of Montreal was met by a brilliant young British officer, Col. J.W. Morrison. The theatre of warfare was Chrysler's Farm on the banks of the St. Lawrence River. (46) Morrison's tactical evaluation and his perception of the American weakness led directly to the British victory. The application of British drill and battle tactics on the open ground of Chrysler's farm were the strength behind victory for young Morrison. (47) The Americans, on the other hand, had little understanding or appreciation for the principles of European warfare.

Morrison depended on drill and discipline to offset the numerical odds against them, this calculated risk succeeded. Morrison, at John Chrysler's farm, failed to block Wilkinson's army on their way to Montreal. Wilkinson upon learning next morning of Hampton's defeat, used this as an excuse 'to fight another day' retired to winter quarters on the American side of the river. (48) American failure to take Montreal was a result of disagreements between General Wilkinson and his subordinate General Hampton. The underlying problem of this friction was due to the fact that Wilkinson was the most despised generals during the war. Decisions and strategies drawn up by Wilkinson, could not be trusted to succeed.

(49) The battle at Chrysler's Farm and Chateauguay meant disgrace and the beginning of the end for General Wilkinson. Relieved of his command early in 1814, he faced court-martial in January, 1815 for among other things being drunk on duty and neglect of duty. The verdict brought disgrace to Wilkinson, a 'severe censure and dismissal from the service. ' (50) It was now clear that the Canadians would not be easy prey for the Americans. It was now 1814, and the objectives laid out by the U.S. in 1812 had not even come close to reality. The dream of a North American republic had failed to secure even the border of Canada.

More trouble was headed the American way, word of the defeat of Napoleon in Russia on April 6, 1814 meant Britain could now take the offensive in the North American war. (50) In 1814, Britain employed the powerful British Royal Navy to bring the war to a successful conclusion. The British fleet sailed against Washington and burned and bombarded the American capital thus avenging the burning of York earlier in the war. (51) The British also invaded Maine and annexed all the territory east of the Penobscot River to New Brunswick.

(52) The Royal Navy blockaded the eastern Atlantic coast virtually paralyzing the trade. (53) If the War of 1812 had been a struggle for the Americans, fortunes of war were now in the hands of Britain. Having taken the initiative, the British were pushing their advantage effectively. In March of 1813, Russian leader Tsar Alexander I offered to mediate between great Britain and the United States. (54) Although Great Britain had refused this earlier offer, but in time entered into direct peace negotiations at Ghent, Belgium mid-1814. The Americans now at a disadvantage as far as the war was concerned and jumped at the opportunity to end the war.

The British were hesitant, with good reason, they were on the offensive and the war was going in her favour. After five months of negotiation The Treaty of Ghent was signed Christmas Eve 1814, bringing an end to war in North America. (55) The Americans 'Second War of Independence... ' had failed, in the process caused disunity within the Republic, and brought the country to the brink of bankruptcy. (56) The results of this treaty returned the territories to what they had been before the war. The reluctance of the British public to finance further war burdens convinced the British negotiators to accept American demands for peace.

By mutual agreement the border was also extended along the 49th parallel to the Rockies. (57) Britain and their subjects reluctance to continue the war was fortunate for the United States, considering the problems they encountered during the war with Canada, they can feel fortunate that Britain lost interest. If this war had been allowed to continue, abetted by the strength of the Royal Navy and the British army, and in the absence of French allies, the American republic may have fallen apart in total defeat. If measured by the Treaty of Ghent, none of the objectives for which the U.S. had gone to war; had been attained. Neither territorial acquisitions nor the impressment issue, so dominant in the speech to Congress by Madison, had been resolved. (58) 'It [Canada] ought to have been obliterated in the war of 1812, but the Americans were inept, and more important militarily, half hearted'.

(59) The American dream for the conquest of North America had failed miserably, and by wars end, they had actually lost territory. The territory of Maine and the islands off the coast of New York, acquired by Britain during the war, were returned. (60) Inept leadership, poor planning and the failure to unite their country to the cause led to the downfall of the Americans. For the British the best defence was a good offence. Key victories were achieved by constant attack at American weak points. The importance of keeping the U.S. off balance in their own territory proved a valuable strategy.

(61) Indians allied to Canada proved to be a great asset, they were a benefit to many battles and were the key to many British victories. The outcome of the war was virtually decided in the first year of the war. The effort displayed early on by intelligent leaders, such as Brock, Tecumseh and De Salaberry, assured numerous victories usually against overwhelming odds. During the two and half years of there twelve separate invasions of Canada, fifty six naval and military engagements, the majority of which were won by Canadians. British regulars supplied more than leadership, they designed plans and strategies that proved successful though out the war.

British military leaders and troops were a major source of the actual fighting in Canada. ' The battles on the border, particularly in the early days, were essentially a contest between ill-organized [sic] numbers on the American side and professional skill on ours... Upper Canada was saved in the in the campaign of 1812 because the province was actually better prepared for war than the United States. It was better prepared because the British taxpayer had provided in Canada the essentials for successful defence. ' (62) For the Americans, conquest of Canada was never attained but they could take pride in the fact they were now an independent nation free of British rules. 'To Britain it was a mere exasperating sideshow [sic] in the fight for survival with Napoleonic France.

' (63) Virtually unheard of historically in Britain, it was had a much greater effect on Canadians. The French and British colonies in Canada united to repel a common enemy. This unique alliance would benefit all Canadians during the war. John Beverley Robinson claimed the war '... produced in the British colonies a national character and feeling. ' (64) Whether or not this is true, the War of 1812 was a victory for Canada. Not only did it produce great heroes but also served to promote national pride and unity for all Canadians.

Stirred to new patriotism and united by the war, the people of Upper and Lower Canada now looked to develop and improve their country.

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