Behavioural Viewpoint Of Employees Motivation example essay topic

Introduction There is an old saying that you can take a horse to the water but you cannot force it to drink; it will drink only if it's thirsty? so with people. They will do what they want to do or otherwise motivated to do. Some people work harder or exert more efforts than others do. This is why some people with lesser ability can outperform their more gifted counterparts.

For this reason, an individual's performance at work depends not only on their ability but on motivation as well. Mullins, (1996, p. 480) suggests that performance is a product of both activity level and motivation. Performance = function (ability x motivation) Therefore, if the manager is to improve the work of the organisation, attention must be given to the level of motivation of its members. Definition of Motivation The word motivate is derived from the Latin verb "mover e? which means 'to cause movement?

Basically, we want to cause our employees to move toward some objectives. Robbins (1998, p. 168) defines motivation as the willingness to exert high levels of effort, toward organisational goals, conditioned by the effort's ability to satisfy some individual needs. A need means a physiological or psychological deficiency that makes certain outcomes appear attractive. Unsatisfied needs will stimulate drives within an individual that will generate a search to find particular goals that, when attained, will satisfy the need. According to Greenberg and Baron (2000, p. 130), scientists have defined motivation as the set of process that arouse, direct, and maintain human behaviour towards attaining some goal. The act of arousing is related to the desire and vigour to produce.

Directing is the election of behaviour, and maintenance is the inclination to behave a certain manner until the desired outcome is met. Bartol and Martin (1994, p. 377) has defined motivation as the force that energies behaviour, gives direction to behaviour, and underlies the tendency to persist. By examining the three different definitions on motivation, one can summarise that the key elements in motivation are direction of behaviour (which behaviour does an employee choose to perform), level of effort (how hard does an employee work to perform a chosen behaviour), and level of persistence (when faced with obstacles, how hard does an employee keep trying to perform a chosen behaviour successfully) Importance of Motivation Hersey and Blanchard (1988, p. 3) discovered that how well an employee functions on the job depends on two variables: the employees ability and motivation. While the employee's ability / skill can be acquired through training, motivation very much depends on the manager.

Motivated employees are likely to exhibit positive work behaviors such as co-operation, accept orders without a fuss, accept criticism, make constructive statements, or even, help co-workers with job-related problems. All these behaviors potentially improve organization's overall work performance. Besides, motivated employees are more committed to the organization and likely to work harder towards organizational goals. In contrast, de-motivated employees tend to absent from work, late for work, or they just quit. Absenteeism, in this instance, refers to situation where employees have some control over absences, but find excuses merely to stay away from work. These employees cause unscheduled absences which may potentially disrupt work in progress and hence, affect organization's overall performance.

Normally, these employees are less willing to exert efforts to achieve organisational goals than their satisfied colleagues. Furthermore, when employees are not giving the amount of concentration required to carry out a particular task, this can sometimes lead to below average or poor work output. Besides, studies have shown that the lower employees? levels of motivation, the more likely they are to consider resigning and they actually do so (Schermerhorn et. al., 1994, p. 145). Basically, employee turnover is a costly and disruptive phenomenon for organizations. The higher the turnover rate, the larger the expenses will be. Some of the costs involved include the cost of time taken to recruit, select and train new employees, the cost of lost production time and the cost of extra supervision required for new employees.

Moreover, the company may loose its good employees to its competitors, or, its disgruntled employees may take sensitive information with them to their new jobs. In summary, motivation is important because high motivational level can contribute substantially to the effectiveness of an organization while the cost associated with low motivation can be astronomical. There are many theories which attempt to explain the nature of motivation. These theories all help to explain the behaviour of certain people at certain times. Due to the complexity of motivation, and the fact that there is no single answer to what motivates people to work well, different theories are important. Collectively, the different theories provide a framework within which to direct attention to the problem of how best to motivate staff to work and effectively.

Motivation? The Needs Perspective There are several theories that are related to identifying the needs of individual, namely Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory, Alderfer's ERG theory, and McClelland's Three Needs theory (Bateman and Snell, 2002, pp. 418-420). Only Alderfer's ERG theory will be examined in detail as Maslow's theory caters more for lower levels and McClelland's theory more for higher levels. Alderfer's ERG Theory Research based on Maslow's concepts of needs demonstrated some problems with his Hierarchy of Needs theory. In reality, the need of an individual is not in a hierarchy as suggested by Maslow. It may regress to a lower level when a certain situation exists, or several needs may exist at the same time, or the progression may not be in the order as suggested.

This theory has also ignore the significance of culture therefore making it insensitive. Alderfer essentially modified Maslow's theory by condensing the five levels of needs and categorise them into three and developed the Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory. The major difference between Maslow's and Alderfer's needs theory centred around three concepts: how the needs are categorised, the relationship between different levels of needs, and what happens when a need is not satisfied. Alderfer has categorised the needs as follow: E = Existence? desires for physiological and material well-being R = Relatedness? desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships G = Growth? desires for continued personal growth and development Alderfer sees needs as moving back and forth, not just upward in the hierarchy. Because of the recognition of forward movement, that is progression from lower level needs (existence) to higher needs (growth), Alderfer's theory is also called as "satisfaction progression? theory.

However, where Maslow's theory generally portrays motivation as moving in one direction, that is moving up in the hierarchy, Alderfer feels that we move back and forth among these 3 needs as situation change. Thus, it is possible to regress from being motivated by growth to being motivated by relatedness. This backward or downward movement means that Alderfer's theory is also a "frustration regression? theory. The ERG theory also argues that "more than one need may be activated at the same time? (Hunt et. al., 2000, p. 112). Managers can compensate an employee by concentrating on relatedness needs (for example, showing cares / concerns and emphasise the "family? aspect of the organisation) when the growth needs cannot be met on the job due to organisation policies or structure.

The manager may also motivate an employee (for example, an engineer) who has attained relatedness needs with existence needs (for example, paying overtime or a pay raise) when certain conditions are met (for example, has just bought a house). ERG theory has also shown to be more consistent with our knowledge that individuals are different, influence by family background, education, and cultural environment. These variables can alter the importance of the category of needs to this individual. People in different culture may see and rank need categories differently? for instance, Malaysian Chinese may see existence needs (for example, money) more important while the Malays may place the relatedness needs (for example, social closeness) before existence needs.

Motivation? Job and Organisational Context There are two theories that are related to the job and organisational context of motivation: Herzberg? Two Factor theory and Adam's Equity theory (Bateman and Snell, 2002, pp. 422-427). Only Herzberg? Two Factor theory will be discussed in detail as Equity theory concentrates more on the perceived equity rather than genuine equity. Herzberg's Two Factor Theory The dual-structure approach was developed by Herzberg (Bateman and Snell, 2002, p. 422) and is often referred to as the Two Factor Theory.

His work centred around the work itself and what can be done with it to enhance individual motivation. His work leads him to draw two main categories of factors. The hygiene factors are related to job context, and are concerned with job environment, particularly company policy, supervision, job security, status, salary and working condition. They do not motivate but serve to prevent dissatisfaction. The motivating factors, however, are those which, if present, serve to motivate the individual to superior effort and performance.

Achievement, recognition, advancement, responsibility and work itself are called "motivators? These factors are characteristics that people find intrinsically rewarding, and are related to job content of the work itself. The strength of these factors will affect feelings of satisfaction. Herzberg argued that improving the hygiene factors might remove dissatisfaction, but would not increase satisfaction and motivation.

Therefore, Managers must work on strengthening the motivating factors to increase satisfaction. Managers can counteract the boredom associated with routine task jobs through realistic job previews and job rotation. Jobs can be restructured to give greater emphasis to the motivating factors at work and to bring about job enrichment. Job enrichment vertically loads jobs to meet individual needs for meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results.

Personal desire for growth and a supportive climate must exist for job enrichment to be successful. Herzberg theory has it's own share of criticisms. The placement of money as a hygiene factor is particularly controversial since many feel that money is still a good basic motivator. It is also believed that Herzberg's model may be most appropriate for white collar workers (managerial and professional workers) and not blue collar workers. Further, Herzberg's theory cannot explain as to why many workers migrate for economic reasons and often having to put up with various inconveniences. Generally, it is argued that both the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are equally important and that one cannot be substituted for another.

As Beer and Walton (1989, p. 16) suggest employees who are paid well for repetitious, boring work will be dissatisfied with the lack of intrinsic rewards, just as employees paid poorly for interesting, challenging work may be dissatisfied with extrinsic reward. Luthans (1992, p. 161) has also commented that Herzberg's model describes only some of the content of work motivation; it does not adequately describe the complex motivational process of organisational participants. Motivation? Behavioural View There are two theories that are related to the behavioural viewpoint of employees? motivation.

They are Locke's Goal-Setting theory and Thorndike's Law of Effect (Bateman and Snell, 2002, pp 413-416). Locke's Goal-Setting Theory The basic premise of goal-setting theory, as developed by Edwin Locke (Robbins, 1998, p. 180), is that well-set and well-managed task goals are important sources for motivation. The basic suggestion in this theory is that people are motivated by specific, challenging goals. Goals tell an individual what is important (that is, it directs attention). It is a source of motivation and act as a benchmark of performance. Research has concluded that challenging goals lead to higher performance (Robbins, 1998, p. 181).

Specific goals are better than general goals (that is, it is not enough to tell a person to "do your best"). Feedback improves the effect of goals on performance. Managers can utilise the basis of goal-setting theory to motivate employees. When managers set objectives, be sure that they are difficult, challenging, and achievable. An unattainable goal will have an adverse effect, it becomes demotivating. The goals should also be specific, measurable, have a target date for accomplishment, and are jointly set when possible.

A goal that was set with the participation of employees will have better commitment from them. Management by Objective (MBO) is a good tool to assist managers in setting goals. MBO is a collaborative process whereby the manager and each employee jointly determine objectives for that employee. To be successful, MBO programs should include commitment and participation in the MBO process at all levels, from top management to the lowest position in the organization.

There are certain limitations to the goal-setting theory. Individualised goals can be dysfunctional if applied to working groups. It will create competition and reduce cooperation (Bateman and Snell, 2002, p. 413). Employee performance has different dimensions (productivity, quality, creativity and others). It is also important not to set goal for a single dimension only as the employee may neglect the other important dimensions. Thorndikes's Law of Effect According to Thorndike's Law of Effect (Bateman and Snell, 2002, p. 414), behaviour that is followed by positive consequences probably will be repeated.

There are four key reinforcers that either encourage or discourage behaviours: ? Positive reinforcement involves in providing a pleasant, rewarding consequences to encourage a desired behaviour.? Negative reinforcement is providing an unpleasant stimuli so that an individual will engage in the desired behaviour in order to stop the unpleasant stimuli.? Punishment is unpleasant consequences used to weaken undesired behaviour.? Extinction is ending undesired behaviour by ignoring and not reinforcing it. Positive reinforcement is being considered as a better motivator and used to encourage desired behaviours.

It is also important for managers to know that reinforcement schedules affect the time needed to learn a new behaviour and the degree to which the behaviour persists. There are two major types of reinforcement schedules: 1. Continuous Reinforcement: With a continuous method, each and every desired behaviour is reinforced. This type of reinforcement is very effective during learning stage but may become tedious and not practical on an ongoing basis. 2. Intermittent Reinforcement: With intermittent reinforcement, the reward is given based on the passage of time (interval) or output (ratio).

When electing to use intermittent reinforcement, there are four alternatives: ? Fixed interval schedule? reinforcer is spaced at uniform time interval? Variable interval schedule? rewards are distributed in time so that reinforcements are unpredictable? Fixed ratio schedule? reinforcer is provided after a fixed number of occurrences of desired behaviour? Variable ratio schedule? reward varies relative to the behaviour of the individual Ratios are generally better motivators than intervals.

The variable ratio tends to be the most powerful schedule for sustaining behaviour. Managers are to emphasise on positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviours. He has to ensure that employees performed as desired receive positive reinforcement. Employees have to be let known what behaviours will be rewarded. There are several principles from this theory that can be applied by managers: ? remember that positive reinforcement is more effective than negative reinforcement or punishment as both constitute negative approaches.? negative reinforcement and punishment have serious drawbacks and side effects: - temporary suspension of behaviour rather than permanent change; - dysfunctional emotional behaviour; - behavioural inflexibility; - permanent damage to desirable behaviour; and - conditioned fear of the punishing agent. Motivation?

The Integrated View After examining the motivation theories mentioned earlier, it can be noted that there is no single theory that is applicable to all situations. However, these theories are not in competition with each other. In fact, many of them are complementary. According to Porter and Lawler, as cited by Bartol and Martin (1994, p. 389), satisfaction does not lead to performance in the expanded expectancy theory model. Rather, the reverse is true, performance can lead to satisfaction through the reward process. Several motivation theories complement the Porter-Lawler model.

To attain high performance with high satisfaction, a manager has to reward high performance. Rewarding a high performance will lead to a high Performance to Outcomes expectancy. Equally critical, poor performance should not be rewarded as rewarding poor performance leads to a low Performance to Outcomes expectancy and ultimately to low motivation among employees to perform. This is the Law of Effect in practice. Expected results may not be obtained by managers from their motivational efforts unless the employees perceive their rewards as equitable, an issue specifically addressed by Equity theory. Managers need to maintain a two-way communication with their employees so that they will have some ideas of the employees? equity perception.

At the same time, the employees have to know the policies that govern the allocation of rewards relative to efforts. Managers should foster a high Effort to Performance expectancy in employees. They can achieve this through the Goal-Setting theory by being very clear about performance expectations: setting challenging but achievable performance goals; provide appropriate training and sufficient resources to attain the required performance levels; and provide timely feedbacks. Managers have to offer opportunities for rewards (both extrinsic and intrinsic) that have a high valence to the employees. As suggested by ERG theory, valences are different among employees.

These valences may changed as some needs are satisfied while others are dominant. An important point to note is that a lucrative reward which do not meet employees? need does not bring satisfaction. The hygiene factors (such as working environment, job security, performance appraisal policy and salary) has to be in place to ensure there is no dissatisfaction among employees. Performance evaluation criteria is used as a motivator to set the appropriate recognition and provide advancement opportunities that is performance based. The above integration is more appropriate when an organisation is systematic with all the rules and policies existing and where management has less opportunities to exercise biasness. Multi-national corporations usually fit in better for this type of scenario.

However, due to the rigid structure, the management has less flexibility to modify the system to adapt to individual needs, as being suggested by the needs theory. However, SMI (small to medium industries) do not have this problem. The management has more power to bend the rules and policies to cater to individual needs. But there are setbacks too. There is a possibility of 'power corrupt? if the power given to management is not properly checked and this may create biasness and ultimately, causing employee's dissatisfaction.

Conclusion It is important to point out, however, that motivation must be used wisely. The misuse of some theories and techniques could result in negative consequences. Remember that employees who receive rewards on performance tend to perform better than employees in groups where rewards are not based on performance. Also, if you understand the causes of human behaviour, you can predict that behaviour to the extent that the behaviour can be controlled. Therefore, if managers understand the relationship between incentives, motivation, and productivity, they should be able to predict the behaviour of their employees.

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