Five Basic Stages Of Development example essay topic

Childhood is the culturally defined period in human development between infancy and adulthood. In a historical perspective, this is a relatively new social construction. Early childhood, as an especially important "superperiod" of childhood, most often refers to the months and years between infancy and school age children (Corsini 345). To understand why childhood is such a crucial time in human life it is important to study the development before and after birth along with any factors that may alter life in between. Heredity is the transmission of characteristics for parents to offspring through genes. Genes are information carriers.

There are two types of genes, dominant and recessive. Dominant genes will emerge each time they are present. A recessive gene will only appear when paired with another recessive gene (Coon 88-89). These genes make each person unique. They determine what color hair and eyes you will have, your body type, and possible even your personality. A problem can take place in any pregnancy.

Such problems can be caused by fate or by fault. Genetic problems are cause by a natural defect in the genes, which are inherited by the offspring's parents (Coon 88-93). These defects can result in a number of diseases. Cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, and sickle-cell anemia are examples of this type of abnormalities (She lov 522-523). It can be said that genetics is all a roll of the dice.

Fortunately, through modern science, many of these defects can be diagnosed through prenatal testing. The invention and use of the ultrasound has made obstetrics a more precise science pregnancy a much less worrisome experience. In fact, ultrasounds have become so common that they are now used in ninety percent of pregnancies today. It is so common because it allows visualization of the fetus without the hazards of x-ray.

Ultrasound works through the use of sound waves. Sound waves are bounced off internal structures and can be viewed with a TV-like viewing screen. The second most common test is maternal blood screening. This test is used to determine whether an amniocentesis is needed. During an amniocentesis amniotic fluid that surrounds a fetus is extracted and examined. Because amniotic fluid contains fetal cells, chemicals, and microorganisms it provides a wide range of information- genetic makeup, present condition, and the level of maturity of the growing baby (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Your Expecting 44-51).

There are many other tests that are not so common and much more complex. Some of these tests are fetoscope, maternal- serum and alpha- fetoprotein screening, chronic villus sampling, fetal skin sampling, and percutaneous umbilical cord sampling (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Your Expecting 52). Unfortunately, all these tests are predictors. A reasonable treatment depends on the type of defect. Unnatural substances called teratogens also can have a harmful effect on the growing fetus (Coon 93). Drugs and alcohol are some of these damaging elements.

Fetal alcohol syndrome (F.A.S.) is a common result of the repeated use of alcohol during pregnancy (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When You " re Expecting 53). Some of the effects of F.A.S. are premature births, low birth weighs, facial malformations, bodily defects, and mental retardation, but these defects are preventable (Coon 94). The sooner a heavy drinker stops drinking during pregnancy, the less risk. Help can be found through Alcoholics Anonymous, a certified alcohol counselor or physician, or an alcohol treatment program (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When You " re Expecting 53-54). Smoking while pregnant, particularly after the fourth month, is hazardous. It results in carbon monoxide poisoning and a reduction of oxygen to the fetus.

Potential risks include low birth-weight, SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), and apnea (breathing lapses) Smoking during pregnancy has been linked to some 115,000 miscarriages and 5,600 infant deaths a year (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When Your Expecting 54-55). After conception, growth begins at a rapid rate. By the end of the first month of life the embryo is smaller than a grain of sand and has begin to develop a heart, digestive tract, sensory organs, and arm and leg buds. In the second month the embryo's heart begins to beat.

Bone has also started to take the place of cartilage. At the end of the third month the developing baby is now called a fetus. When the fourth month ends, the fetus is about four inches long and is being nourished by the placenta. Reflexes, such as sucking and swallowing have also developed. Movement by the fetus is strong enough to be felt by the mother in the fifth month. Finger and toe prints are visible by the end of the sixth month.

The eyes begin to open at this time too. By the end of the seventh month, fat begins to deposit on the fetus. It may suck its thumb, hiccup, cry, and respond to stimuli. There is good chance that the fetus may survive if born now.

After the end of eight months, the baby is about eighteen inches long and weighs about five pounds. Growth, especially of the brain, is great at this time. Most systems are well developed, but the lungs may still be immature. In the ninth month final preparations are being made for birth (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When You " re Expecting 101-270).

It takes nine months to create a baby, and only a matter of hours to bring one into the world. Yet it is those hours that seem to occupy the minds of most expectant parents. Fortunately, parents have more options in childbirth today than ever before. With the exception of certain emergency situations, the decision of whether or not to have medication during labor and delivery can be solely left up to the awaiting parents. A conventional delivery takes places in hospital delivery room. Pain medications are given to ease pain while a physician assists in the delivery process (Coon 94).

Analgesics, tranquilizers, and regional nerve blocks are the three most commonly used pain relievers. Meperidine hydrochloride, a powerful pain reliever often known as Demerol, is one of the most frequently used obstetrical analgesics. Tranquilizers are used to calm and relax. They go by names such as Phenergan and Vista ril. The most popular regional nerve block today is the epidural. The major reason for its popularity is that its use is relatively safe (less drug is needed to achieve the desired effect).

The drug (usually bupivacaine, lidocaine, or chloro procaine) is administered as needed during labor and / or delivery, through a fine needle that is inserted the back. After this process is completed the woman will feel numb, usually from the waist down (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect When You " re Expecting 228-231). These pain relievers can also have poor side effects on mother and child. Mothers may be drowsiness and unable to push. The baby may be sleepy and unable to suck; less frequently, respiration may be depressed and an oxygen supplement may be needed. At times, there may be a complication that prevents a baby from being born vaginally.

In such cases a cesarean section may be needed. During this major surgery an epidural or general anesthesia will be needed. To avoid these side-effects parents may opt to use other pain relief techniques, such as Lamaze. Lamaze is the most commonly used technique in prepared childbirth.

It was developed by Ferdinand Lamaze. It teaches relaxation techniques that typically minimize pain and shorten labor. However, it is more important that parents have a pleasant attitude and are emotional involved in the birth of their child (Coon 95). Most first-time parents are unprepared for the appearance of the bundle of joy that is handed to them after delivery. The typical newborn often has a battered look, a head that looks too large for its body. A newborn's eyes may appear squinty and swollen.

Because of an infusion of female hormones from the placenta just before birth, many babies, both boys and girls, have swollen breasts and genitals. There may even be a milky discharge from the breasts (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect the First Year 46). At birth, newborns also display a number of reflexes. These reflexes are the Moro, Babinski, rooting, palmar grasping, walking, and the tonic neck reflex. The Moro reflex, also know as the startle reflex, can be seen when an infant is surprised by a loud noise and extends its arms and legs as it was falling. Babinski reflex is displayed when the sole of the foot is gently stroked from heel to toe, the toes flare upward and foot turns inward.

Rooting reflex helps infants find nourishment and can be seen when a newborn's cheek is gently stroked and then turns in the direction of the stimulus, mouth open and ready to suckle. The walking, or stepping reflex, is noticeable when a newborn is held upright on a flat surface, supported under the arms, will appear to be taking steps. Pressing an object against a young baby's palm will cause a flexing of the hand. This attempt to grasp the object is known as the palmar grasping reflex. When placed on the back, a young baby will assume a "fencing position", head to one side, with arms and legs on that side extended and opposite limbs flexed. This reflex is called the tonic neck reflex (Eisenberg, Murkoff, and Hathaway, What to Expect the First Year 48).

"Cleaning and scrubbing can wait till tomorrow... for babies grow up, we " ve learned to our sorrow. So quiet down cobwebs; dust go to sleep. I'm rocking my baby and babies don't keep". This quotation, by an unknown author, accurately depicts the rate of which children seem to grow. This physical growth of body and mind is known as maturation. Children may develop at different rates, however, maturation always follows a methodical sequence.

Motor development is a good example of this. (Coon 85). As the old saying goes "you must crawl before you walk". The emotional development of very young children closely parallels maturation. After about three months of age babies can express feeling of surprise, happiness, fear, anger, and excitement. These developments allow children to interact in a new social way.

Self-awareness and a heightened awareness of others are the two main ingredients in social development. Self-awareness is the understand of oneself as a person. Infants also become more aware of others at this time. They begin to make social references (Coon 98-99). This is displayed by the use of the words such as I, me, you, and us.

Language is another important social development. Yet, there are two very different theories that explain the human ability to learn language. One, originally proposed by B.F. Skinner is verbal behavior, suggests that children learn to talk through classical and operant conditioning. The second theory, proposed by Noam Chomsky and by David McNeill argues that language learning is largely innate. Just as a child walks only when mature enough, a child only talks when the brain is ready. It is as if there were a "language acquisition device" in the mind already programmed with the basic linguistic rules.

While both theories have their merits, a third perspective on language development is more commonly excepted. This theory holds that the interaction between an infant and caregiver is the heart of language. Evidence of this has been shown by studies from deaf as well as hearing infants (Corsini 641). Four separate aspects of language development have been studied: phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. Phonology has to do with the use of sound. From birth infants can communicate with various cries.

Such cries may indicate hunger, pain, or needs for attention. At about twelve months children speak their first words. From this point on, the sounds that they produce come closer to standard speech. Semantics involve the meaning of words and phrases. Before they begin to speak infants understand the meanings of words. Around the age of two, many children experience a "language explosion", as new words enter their vocabulary rapidly (Baldwin 37) Semantics is one aspect of language that shows a documented improvement throughout adulthood.

Syntax deals with the construction of sentences and the arrangement of the words in them. Preschoolers gain a good grasp of syntax from their parents. Yet, it is during middle childhood, adolescence, and adulthood that people achieve a better understanding of syntax. Pragmatics are practical communication skills.

A person's ability to communicate with language involves far more than acceptable phonology, semantics, and syntax. It involves tailoring the message to fit a specific audience (Corsini 642-643). For example, a person would speak differently to their boss than they would to a baby or on the street. Social development or socialization is how children interact with others and the world around them. In the beginning, are very self-centered. Quickly, children learn to imitate the actions of adults and older children.

As youngsters grow social development can have a profound effect on academic progress. "When children work on a project", says University of Illinois education professor Lillian Katz, "they learn to work together, to disagree, to speculate, to take turns and to de-escalate tensions". (Duffy 82-83) These skills are also of great importance in later life (like in the work force). Moral development usually follows social development (Duffy 85). It has been placed into three levels by Lawrence Kohlberg. Pre conventional is the first level.

This kind of moral thinking is based on consequences such as punishment or reward for one's behavior. The second, the conventional level, is based on the desire to please others and conform to set laws and values (Coon 111). This is why children often bend to the pressures of their peers (Coles 48). The post conventional level is third. This is the most advanced level of moral development in which thinking is carefully examined and decisions are based on self-accepted moral principles (Coon 111). Kohlberg considered these stages to be cognitive process that proceeds from one stage to the next with a pace determined by the individual's opportunities and experiences (Corsini 186).

How children develop has been a long debated issue. Jean Piaget and Sigmund Freud are two of the most recognized theorists on this subject. Jean Piaget believed that children go through stages of mental development. This is his theory of cognitive development. The first stage in this development is the sensorimotor (0-2 years). In the sensorimotor stage infants learn to coordinate sensory input and motor skills (Coon 106-107).

The second stage, the pre operational stage (2-7 years), is where children begin to use words and solve complex problems. Children can also move from one to two-word at age two, to eight or ten-word sentences around age five. The concrete operations stage (7-11 years) is third. This stage brings a solid way of thinking and a tendency to give up the magical way of thinking of the previous stage.

Reasoning during this period is based on actual examples. Last, the formal operations stage (11 years and up) is when rational patterns of thinking are developed. Abstract thought is also possible at this time (Corsini 185). Piaget sees these changes, as a part of an individual's moving toward a well-balanced set of ideas organized into a workable mental system, which can be used to solve new problems. Sigmund Freud created the theory of psychosexual development. This theory stresses the fact that early experiences during sensitive periods have lasting effects on an individual.

He developed five basic stages of development. First is the oral stage, were sucking needs are met (0-1 year). Stage two is the anal stage (1-3 years). During this stage the elimination need is fulfilled. Third is the phallic stage (3-7 years) In this stage children become aware of genital differences and the pleasures of masturbation. Next is the latency stage, (7-12 years) a period when primary love interests are diverted to individuals outside the home.

Basic personality traits have been formed by this time. This fairly stable period could be called the calm before the storm of puberty. The genital stage (12-Adulthood) is last. This is the stage where sex drive increases, parental attachments are dissolved, and adolescent conflicts develop.

Freud felt that if the first three stages were completed without a great deal of trauma, the individual will tend to be psychologically healthy. However, if some of the basic needs are not met, personality development will become fixated and personality will be effected in all later stages. Like Piaget and Freud, Erik Erikson believed in a stage-dependent approach. He disagreed with Freud's psychosexual concepts because he felt that they were too narrowly constructed and that personality is not completely defined in childhood. Instead, he believed that development continues throughout life. He constructed an eight-stage psychosocial development sequence.

His early childhood stages were almost a duplicate of Freud. Not all psychologist except the stage approach to development. For example, some see personality and cognitive development as a continuous process. Those who do accept the stage approach, like the theorists discussed above, see development as being continuously reorganized on more and more complex levels, in an orderly sequence, as the individual matures. Each stage represents ways of thinking and making behavioral choices that are basically different from both the thinking that has gone before and the thinking that comes after in more advanced stages. Childhood is an important period in human life.

However significant, this "superperiod" passes at an alarming rate. Studying child development before and after birth is of great importance. It can open a window into the adult world, helping us learn more about ourselves and the people around us.