Italy In The German States 1848 example essay topic

NATIONALISM AND NATIONAL MOVEMENTS: 1848-1871 in 1848 liberal and nationalist sentiments in Europe erupted in a series of revolutions but the revolutions of 1848, after a brief moment of success, ultimately failed liberals throughout Europe proved unable to establish and consolidate political power, and conservatives in the end retained control of most states but national feeling grew more intense after 1848 by 1871 both Italy and Germany came into being as new nation-states the United States, in the early 1860's, was torn apart by a prolonged and bloody civil war, which was in part fought over different concepts of nationhood Canada came into being in 1867 by a British act of parliament, but the new state faced the problem of having to integrate French and English elements with widely different traditions Japan faced the problem of attempting to adopt Western industrialism with extraordinary speed without losing its own identity it was a new age-of revolutions, limited wars, changing ideologies, and nation-building The Revolutions of 1848 Metternich had feared that revolution in one European state would inspire other uprisings he had special fears for the multi-national Austrian Empire, and he attempted to suppress the national aspirations of all groups Metternich's fears were justified by events when a revolution did break out, it usually sparked others 1848 was the most revolutionary year in the history of the West only England and Russia escaped serious uprisings in 1848 in 1848 a revolution in France once again gave the lead to Europe discontent mounted both among the lower middle class and the growing body of workers opposition to the regime arose particularly among republicans who sought participation for more peopl in the political life of the nation the pattern of revolution, established in 1789, was repeated all the revolutionaries agreed on a republican form of government, and a provisional government was established until elections could be held in April the February Revolution in France raised the hopes of nationalists and liberals all over Europe within a month the Austrian Empire was shaken by national and liberal uprisings throughout the Italian peninsula people rose in revolt other peoples in the Au strain Empire soon demanded national autonomy the Vienna revolution was at first successful in the German states revolution was directed against Austria, the state which had the most to lose from German unification the German nationalist revolutionaries turned to Prussia for leadership the revolutionary forces varied in their composition from one area to another in Paris workers joined with intellectuals in Vienna students and intellectuals led the way in Hungary the revolutionaries were aristocrats who fought for autonomy from Austria in Italy some members of all classes supported insurrections and backed the attempt of Piedmont to unite Italy in the German states 1848 was, as one historian has called it, a revolution of the intellectuals by mid-1848 Europe was convulsed by revolutions; a year later, most of these revolutionary movements had failed one reason for this failure was the inability of the revolutionaries to remain united while people could agree to overthrow the old regimes, they could not agree on the shape of the new order not everyone greeted revolution with joy the professional armies of Europe often continued to support the old regime nationalities who sought freedom and autonomy for themselves denied the same freedom to others as President of the Second Republic, Louis Napoleon proceeded to liquidate the republican regime the country voted overwhelmingly in his favour; France thus chose to have both its second Napoleon and its Second Empire another republican experiment had failed in the Austrian Empire the Hapsburgs managed to regain control one of the revolutionary outbursts had occurred in the Papal States, the territory in Italy under the rule of the Pope a constituent assembly was called by the revolutionaries, and in Febraury 1849 Mazzini's group proclaimed the establishment of a democratic Roman Republic as other European states began to restore stability, they turned their attention to Rome all Catholic areas joined forces to defeat Mazzini and restore the Pope, who returned to Rome in 1850 Italian nationalists would never let him or the rest of Italy forget that he was brought back by foreign troops fighting against Italians Consequences of the Failure of 1848 if intellectuals and ideas-especially liberalism and nationalism-helped to make the revolutions of 1848, they were also partly responsible for their failure liberalism stood for rational discourse, freedom, and constitutional government in 1848 it became clear that intellectuals and ideas would not by themselves make a successful revolution a strong current of anti-intellectualism appeared in central Europe after 1849 many, though not all, nationalists abandoned liberalism as an ideology for change and adopted a new realistic policy if nationalism was to succeed it could not rely on liberal methods, but must adopt a policy of force realism and power were viewed as the way of the future nationalists were ready to ally with anyone who could help them achieve their ends liberalism remained the political philosophy of the middle class and a powerful force where that class was numerous liberalism was particularly strong in England, France, the United States, Belgium, and Piedmont the working class of the Industrial Revolution often rejected the laissez-faire economics of liberalism labourers blamed the failure of 1848 on the middle class, and many turned from liberalism to revolutionary socialism the failure of the revolutions of 1848 also created a community of exiles The Unification of Italy and Germany what moved the great majority of people in the mid nineteenth century was not socialism or liberalism, but nationalism the nationalist revolts of 1848 ended in failure, but national aspirations did not disappear; they became more intense in Italy, the German states, the Hapsburg lands, and the Balkans in 1850 Italy was a geographical area, not a state; Germany was a group of many sovereignties; and Austria was an empire of many peoples by 1871 Italy and Germany were nation-states The Crimean War the Crimean War of 1854-56 cleared the way for the restructuring of both Italy and Germany it began as a dispute over the area now known as Rumania, then under the control of the Ottoman Empire the Congress of Paris in 1856 arranged the peace for the first time in centuries, Russia had lost a European war for those with nationalist ambitions, the weakness of the conservative states of Europe was a good omen the growth of industry and the development of new technology resulted in the production of new weapons, such as machine guns, which made killing more grisly and efficient the competition in war technology of the last half of the nineteenth century actually began in the period after the Crimean War Cavour and Italy the small Italian principality of Piedmont-Sardinia joined in the Crimean War Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-61) understood that only those who take part in a war can particiapte in the peace the Piedmontese slodiers fought well and Cavour earned a place at the conference table when peace came national unification had been a passion in the Italian peninsula since the time of Napoleon revolutionary secret societies committed to a republican solution began to appear in the 1830's and 1840's the most famous and dashing revolutionary leaders was Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) he was a liberal soldier of fortune who had fought in Latin America in the 1830's and had joined Mazzini in Rome in 1848 on the other hand, a group of Italian theologians and laymen proposed a loose federation with the Pope at the head Cavour was both a Piedmontese patriot and an Italian patriot he helped to reorganize the economy on modern lines, encourage financial growth, and stimulate the building of railways Cavour did not think Mazzini's ideas and methods could succeed or create anything lasting only diplomacy and war, he believed, could bring about the national revival of Italy the real enemy of Italy in 1848 was Austria in July 1858 Piedmont and France signed the Pact of Plombieres, agreeing to make war on Austria so that Lombardy and Venetia might be aa annexed to Piedmont the agreement was limited to the unification of northern Italy the first step in the plan was to provoke Austria Austria actually declared war first on April 20, 1859 though Lombardy was annexed by Cavour, Venetia remained in the hands of Austria in 1860 Garibaldi used the success of Piedmont in the north to unite the south Garibaldi took control of Sicily in July 1860 and then moved on to the mainland on September 8, 1860, he entered the city of Naples, uniting the south of Italy Cavour feared that Garibaldi would invade Rome an Italian parliament met at Turin in 1861 and declared Italy a constitutional monarchy with Victor Emmanuel as King Cavour died in 1861 at the moment of his greatest success his methods raised enormous problems a war was instigated simply to further the cause of the nation-state in 1866 Italy united with Prussia in a war against Austria, but it was unsuccessful during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, French armies were too busy losing to Prussia to protect Rome not all Italians were thrilled to join the united nation-state, nor were all problems's loved immense poverty continued large numbers of devout Catholics did not give their support to the liberal, constitutional regime Bismarck and Germany as a result, Prussia became the centre of German nationalism Bismarck was a Junker, a member of the Prussian aristocracy he believed in monarchical principles and had little use for republican, liberal, or socialist ideas as a Prussian nationalist, he did not want German unification to submerge Prussia he was also a realist who did not attempt to do away with the Prussian constitution; he knew that if he went too far, he could produce a revolutionary situation in 1864 Bismarck joined with Austria in a war against Denmark; Denmark was quickly defeated Bismarck used the desire for a German nation-state and Prussia's dominant economic position to unite some of the German states against Austria while liberals and conservatives in Prussia had different concepts of nationalism, they were all swept along by the feeling for unity German intellectuals were more willing to support Bismarck after the failures of 1848 Bismarck was aware of the obstacles to German unification he realized he would have to defeat Austria and silence its claims to German leadership in order to enable Prussia to bring about German unification he embarked on a most extraordinary demonstration of Realpolitik militarily, he prepared for war with Austria diplomatically, he prepared by isolating his enemy: he brought about an alliance with Italy; he pacified France with vague promises of territory; he hinted to Russia that Prussia would support its Mediterranean claims; and he calculated that England would not intervene as long as he did not challenge its empire Bismarck wanted a short and decisive war with Austria because if it was a long one, other powers might enter Bismarck brought on the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 by provoking a disagreement between Austria and Prussia over the occupation of Schleswig-Holstein the war lasted only seven weeks and ended in a great victory for Prussia the Seven Weeks War resulted in the creation in 1867 of the North German Confederation Bismarck had succeeded in creating the largest German entity since the middle ages as a result of war and defeat, the Austrian Empire was weakened Austria-Hungary became a dual monarchy under the Hapsburgs Bismarck realized that if he wished to unify the rest of Germany, he must defeat France as he had done before, Bismarck manufactured a crisis in order to start a war the crisis was precipitated in 1870 by the question of succession to the Spanish throne the Franco-Prussian War, begun in July 1870, was effectively ended on September 2 with the defeat of Napoleon at Sedan the south German states sided with Prussia the German armies completely shattered the French now the balance of power had clearly shifted before a treaty was signed with France, Bismarck took the final step in German unification the south German states joined the North German Confederation to create the German Empire The Periphery of the West: National Problems in the decades of the 1850's and 1860's national issues were also important in some areas outside Europe in 1850 the United States was at the beginning of a constitution battle which threatened its existence as a nation tension persisted between peoples of English and French origin Japan had been deliberately closed to outsiders for several centuries; but it was now under pressure to change from both inside and outside forces by 1870 the United States had gone through a civil war and survived as one entity, Canada had come into existence as a nation, and Japan was transforming itself into a Western state and a world power The United States: Sectionalism, Nationalism, and Civil War the division in the United States was over the larger question of state sovereignty the northern portion of the country had developed industrially while the South had become a one-crop agricultural region, relying on cotton and slavery for its prosperity Abraham Lincoln (1809-65) came to represent those who defended a strong central government he was opposed to the spread of slavery into new territories as they became part of the United States Lincoln promised he would accept slavery as long as it was not extended federal authorities regarded this as an act of rebellion, and civil war began from 1861 to 1865 the United States suffered through the bloodiest war in its history the war ended slavery in the United States and it enabled the country to survive and grow as a single nation Canada: Unity and Dominion Status to the north of the United States lay a series of British colonies with origins in early French and English settlements Durham recommended that all Canadian-English and French-be united under one government in 1840 an Act of Union brought together Lower Canada, which was mainly French, and Upper Canada, which was mainly English, into one political unit general discussions for such a confederation were begun in 1864; the result was the passing of the British North America Act by the British parliament in 1867 the act established a new country, the Dominion of Canada, which included Lower and Upper Canada-Quebec and Ontario-and two of the maritime provinces-New Brunswick and Nova Scotia a federal parliament was established to govern the whole country, and each province was given its own legislature Manitoba and British Columbia joined the Confederation as provinces in 1870 and 1871, respectively; P.E.I. in 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905; and Newfoundland, as the tenth province, in 1949 without a revolution, a group of colonies had become a state a precedent was set by England in allowing and encouraging colonies to become a state and run their own internal affairs Canada remained part of the British Empire closely linked to Britain in economic, cultural, and diplomatic affairs Japan: Tradition vs. Westernization Europeans knew little about Japan in 1850 Japanese society was highly traditional, so some contact with the West did occur by 1850 there were two potent forces of change in Japan: first, domestic discontent with policies of the shogunate; second, American and European pressures forcing Japan into diplomatic relations with the rest of the world treaties were soon made with the United States which opened ports for American trade and provided for an exchange of diplomats Japan consciously began to Westernize though strong localisms persisted, many feudal privileges were ended, and government became more centralized Japan was given a constitution in 1889 economic growth was fostered by a combination of government initiative and private enterprise the government attempted to provide political stability and a sound financial atmosphere, and to encourage industrial development it also sponsored railways, telegraph lines, and shipbuilding family-business enterprises grew up and became very powerful institutions in some enterprises Japan began to compete with the major in dus trial countries economic growth at home was accompanied by expansion overseas by 1905 Japan was competing successfully with European powers in only a few decades Japan had undergone an industrial revolution Japan was now a world power The End of French Continental Ascendency-The New Balance of Power in 1871 Germany now became the single most important state on the European continent it was large in territory and population, had great industrial potential, a strong armed force, and a vibrant culture France could no longer set the pace for the European continent England expanded its empire; Austria-Hungary stumbled along; and Russia was held back by slow economic development and reactionary governments while the new Italy took its place alongside the great powers, many doubted that it belonged there Mazzini's dream had not come true-nationalism did not increase the harmony among peoples, but often increased antagonism and created an atmosphere of animosity, suspicion, and revenge Europe became an armed camp in the name of national defence, and everyone feared the possibility of a general European war technology strengthened national units and gave the central governments of all states the ability to control their hinterland.