Layer Impact The Child's Development example essay topic

Ecological systems theory: This theory looks at a child's development within the context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment. Bronfenbrenner's theory defines complex "layers" of environment, each having an effect on a child's development. This theory has recently been renamed "bioecological systems theory" to emphasize that a child's own biology is a primary environment fueling her development. The interaction between factors in the child's maturing biology, his immediate family / community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development.

Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well. Bronfenbrenner Bronfenbrenner's structure of environment: The microsystem - this is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has direct contact. The microsystem encompasses the relationships and interactions a child has with her immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000).

Structures in the microsystem include family, school, neighborhood, or childcare environments. At this level, relationships have impact in two directions - both away from the child and toward the child. For example, a child's parents may affect his beliefs and behavior; however, the child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional influences, and he shows how they occur among all levels of environment. The interaction of structures within a layer and interactions of structures between layers is key to this theory.

At the microsystem level, bi-directional influences are strongest and have the greatest impact on the child. However, interactions at outer levels can still impact the inner structures. The mesosystem - this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child's microsystem (Berk, 2000). Examples: the connection between the child's teacher and his parents, between his church and his neighborhood, etc.

The exosystem - this layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly. The structures in this layer impact the child's development by interacting with some structure in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). Parent workplace schedules or community-based family resources are examples. The child may not be directly involved at this level, but he does feel the positive or negative force involved with the interaction with his own system. The macrosystem - this layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child's environment. While not being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000).

The effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all other layers. For example, if it is the belief of the culture that parents should be solely responsible for raising their children, that culture is less likely to provide resources to help parents. This, in turn, affects the structures in which the parents function. The parents' ability or inability to carry out that responsibility toward their child within the context of the child's microsystem is likewise affected. The chrono system - this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child's environments. Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent's death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child.

As children get older, they may react differently to environmental changes and may be more able to determine more how that change will influence them. Nature vs. Nurture? More modern child development theories accept that both a child's biology and his environment play a role in change and growth. Theories now focus on the role played by each and the extent to which they interact in ongoing Bronfenbrenner development. Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child's environment. He states that as a child develops, the interaction within these environments becomes more complex.

This complexity can arise as the child's physical and cognitive structures grow and mature. So, given that nature continues on a given path, how does the world that surrounds the child help or hinder continued development? This is the question answered by Bronfenbrenner's theory. Urie Bronfenbrenner, co-founder of Head Start, uses his bioecological model to provide a startlingly clear view of the problems we have been seeing in our students and in our families.

He says that technology has changed our society, and while we are taking great pains to safeguard the physical environment from the damage done by a technology, we have spent no resources to provide similar safeguards to the damage done to our societal environment. (Henderson, 1995). Our economy has shifted from an industrial model to a technological model, yet the patterns of the workplace have continued to rely on the factory work ethic. Parents are expected to work a schedule that revolves around the factory whistle - even though they may work in a high tech office.

The technology that enables workers to be free of manual labor, should also free them from the time and place boundary. Yet, our work ethic demands more face time - not less. As women entered the work force, they too were subject to the same demands. Family life in this country has taken a back seat to the needs of the workplace. Also of concern to Bronfenbrenner is the "deficit" model used to determine the level of support granted by the public to struggling families.

Parents must declare themselves deficient in some way in order to qualify for help in solving problems that may come about because of our cultural value of independence. A larger degree of failure means a larger amount of support. By working from this deficit model, we expect families to hold their hands up from deep inside a black hole of helplessness. Then, we expect them to have the psychological strength to climb up the thin rope the throw down. Implications for practice Bronfenbrenner sees the instability and unpredictability of family life we " ve let our economy create as the most destructive force to a child's development (Addison, 1992). Children do not have the constant mutual interaction with important adults that is necessary for development.

According to the ecological theory, if the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should be present in the child / parent (or child / other important adult) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves especially in adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self-direction (Addison, 1992). This theory has dire implications for the practice of teaching. Knowing about the breakdown occurring within children's homes, is it possible for our educational system to make up for these deficiencies? It seems now that it is necessary for schools and teachers to provide stable, long-term relationships.

Yet, Bronfenbrenner believes that the primary relationship needs to be with someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the child's influence. Schools and teachers fulfill an important secondary role, but cannot provide the complexity of interaction that can be provided by primary adults. For the educational community to attempt a primary role is to help our society continue its denial of the real issue. The problems students and families face are caused by the conflict between the workplace and family life - not between families and schools. Schools and teachers should work to support the primary relationship and to create an environment that welcomes and nurtures families.

We can do this while we work to realize Bronfenbrenner's ideal of the creation of public policy that eases the work / family conflict (Henderson, 1995). It is in the best interest of our entire society to lobby for political and economic policies that support the importance of parent's roles in their children's development. Bronfenbrenner would also agree that we should foster societal attitudes that value work done on behalf of children at all levels: parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work supervisors, legislators. Bronfenbrenner References Addison, J.T. (1992). Urie Bronfenbrenner.

Human Ecology, 20 (2), 16-20. Berk, L.E. (2000). Child Development (5th ed. ). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

23-38 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1990). Discovering what families do. In Rebuilding the Nest: A New Commitment to the American Family. Family Service America [web site].

Henderson, Z.P. (1995). Renewing our social fabric. Human Ecology, 23 (1), 16-19. The Body "Anatomy is destiny" Sigmund Freud, Collected Writings (1924) vol. 5 In the bioecological systems approach of Bronfenbrenner, the body is part of the microsystem. Its effects on the other parts of the microsystem are probably obvious to most of us. The body is the life support system, the mobility system, and that with which we perceive and interact with the environment.

There are several characteristics of the body that can influence development in different ways. The first and broadest is the general health of the body. A person's health is determined by how effectively the various subsystems in the body function and the influences of environmental factors. The complexity of the human body is well beyond the discussion here; from genes to biochemical reactions on the cellular level, from enzymes to proteins, and from bones to skin, we are an amazing collection of compounds and structures. If all our systems are working together and effectively, we can say we are in good health.

Unfortunately this is a rather rare situation. There are many more disorders of the body than there are of the mind, and some affect both. During the course of growth from infant to adult our bodies are assaulted by countless external threats. We are attacked by almost everything we come in contact with in one way or another.

Airborne pathogens are drawn into our lungs, sunlight breaks down our skin cells and causes melanoma, and the thorn of a rose pierces our skin and leaves bacteria inside. Some of us have genetic disorders that cause malfunctions in our internal systems like cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, and osteogenesis imperfecta. Or we develop conditions as a result of lifestyle or environment like mesothelioma from asbestos exposure, alcoholism, or obesity. Since the body is our life support system, it only makes sense that we try to protect it from harm and keep it in good working order despite the innumerable threats we have to counteract. Modern medical science continues to seek better ways to help us in this battle, but there are some basic things we all need to do in order to keep our bodies in the healthiest condition we can. In the broadest categories of health maintenance are; nutrition, exercise, and prevention.

Good nutrition provides the body with the fuel it needs to feed the living cells in all our subsystems, replace damaged cells, and grow new cells. The proper combinations of vitamins, proteins, enzymes, minerals, and other substances are needed on a continuing basis to keep the body healthy. Lack of needed components causes a variety of disorders as does over supply. Exercise is necessary to maintain full use of the heart and lungs as well as assisting the structural components of the body in maintaining their strength and flexibility. Again, as with nutrition, there can be too much of a good thing, resulting in physical damage such as broken bones or torn ligaments. We need to know our limits and avoid dangerous situations.

Avoidance is one of the ways we prevent damaging ourselves. We learn at some point in our development that we cannot fly, and so we avoid jumping off buildings. Other forms of prevention we practice are inoculations against diseases, periodic medical exams, and the use of safety devices like seatbelts. All of these are designed to keep our bodies from harm. The educational impact of all this involves the ability of our body to aid us in our quest for knowledge.

Every one of the above dangers, disorders, or diseases can have an impact on the development of the child and that child's ability to learn. Poor nutrition can contribute to learning problems, so can a broken leg. Other physiological conditions, quite normal ones, can also have an impact on learning. Hormone changes in adolescence are notorious for causing disruptions in the learning process. In short, anything that happens to the body affects the mind and it's ability to process data. Brain & Biology "I am a Bear of Very Little Brain, and long words Bother me".

Winnie-the-Pooh, A.A. Milne (1926) The biology of the brain is certainly one of the most important systems in a developing child. The health of the child's brain will have a great impact on the rate and quality of development in all areas. Since all senses and motor functions are centralized here, virtually any activity must begin with the brain. Damage due to disease or injury can impair activity and cause a variety of developmental difficulties. There are numerous causes for brain injury, and they can strike at any time in the developmental process up to and including adulthood. In addition to trauma, disease is a major contributor to brain injuries.

Millions of dollars are spent annually on research to find a way to stop the progression of Alzheimer's disease, a pathology nearly exclusive to the elderly. Other diseases affect all age groups. Encephalitis, meningitis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob, and others are caused by external pathogens that can be acquired by any individual through the process of a normal life. The causes of many other conditions that affect the brain are genetic. Parkinson's, Huntington's, and Down's are just a few of the more than 1000 genetic based brain disorders that have been identified.

Other causes are environmental or are related to prenatal care issues such as fetal alcohol syndrome, a major cause of mental retardation. A fairly comprehensive source of information on neurological matters is the National Institute of Health site, web In addition to the physiological causes of brain related issues, there are psychological and pharmacological factors that can affect a developing child in many ways. Depression and substance abuse are two of the largest problems faced by adolescents; both can have serious affects on learning and behavior. According to NIH statistics, in the United States alone, 9 million children and adolescents have some form of mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder and only 1/3 are receiving any treatment. Bronfenbrenner's microsystem is the first domain of emotions, those that are found within the family are central to a child's development. As the child matures the range of emotion grows to include the influences of the expanding environment.

Here, culture and other external forces can influence the development of emotions such as fear of strangers, shame, and romantic love. Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psycho evolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds. ), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp. 3-33).

New York: Academic. Gardner, H. (1999). The disciplined mind; beyond facts and standardized tests, the K- 12 education that every child deserves. (p. 82). New York: Penguin Putnam Mankind has struggled throughout his history to understand his environment. Initially this quest was driven by the need for survival. As man evolved into a more complex social creature the quest broadened to include ways to control the environment and to understand himself.

Philosophers have struggled from the beginning to define human existence and understand the human mind in all its complexity. Through the works of men like Piaget, Erikson, and Gardner we have models for the ways in which our cognitive faculties develop. They seem to develop in stages, as Piaget and Erikson postulate, the nested environments Bronfenbrenner speaks of can be seen as the physical structure related to these stages. Using the Piaget ian terms, when the infant is in the sensorimotor stage it's whole world is the microsystem and the most immediate part of the mesosystem. The pre operational stage includes more of the mesosystem as language develops.

School and community begin to be more direct influences as the child enters the concrete operational stage. Finally in the formal operational stage higher cognitive abilities reach out farther into the exosystem and even the macrosystem. Gardner provides us a model, in his multiple intelligence theory, that explains that different people handle knowledge and information in different ways. Within the bioecological systems of Bronfenbrenner, we can view these multiple intelligences as cognitive subsystems, the atoms that make up the molecule of the mind.

If each type of intelligence creates it's own interpretation of the events that make up the stimuli we receive, then the aggregate understanding is influenced by the filtering effect of these intelligences. The Behavioral System "A talent is formed in stillness, a character in the world's torrent". Johann W. von Goethe Torquato Tasso, act I, sc. 2 Since we have no direct method of observing a person's mind in action, we observe the behavior of the person. Many researchers have noted the correlation between environmental elements and behaviors. We can observe the response of an individual to a stimulus and we can see the individual learn from this incident and the repetition of similar incidents.

This is called classical conditioning. On the graphic this is illustrated by and input which represents the external stimulus, and an output, which is the resulting behavior. The behavior is associated with the environmental event, and when a similar event occurs the response is recalled and replayed. In the bio- ecological system, it is the richness of the environment in the microsystem that is important to the development of the child. The mother-child, father-child, and father- mother pairs (or dyads per Bronfenbrenner), being the basis of the early microsystem, can be seen as being most influential at that stage. These two person systems are very bi-directional in nature; both parties develop together (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

Much of a child's behavior is learned in the microsystem, though as the child ages, the other, more distant, systems will have increasing influence. Internal systems also have an effect on behavior. The emotional system and the biology of the child are two internal forces that can have significant influence on behavior. Any parent can verify that illness modifies (at least temporarily) a child's behavior.

Protracted illness or a physiological abnormality can be underlying causes for more lasting behavioral issues. Similar behavioral variations can come from emotional causes such as stress, depression, and grief. As the cognitive system develops, it can have an offsetting influence versus emotional and even biological factors. The more mature child will be able to apply social rules and mores to the behavioral influences of emotion and learn to compensate for and even appreciate biological differences as the cognitive system develops. FAMILY "Having one child makes you a parent; having two you are a referee". David Frost, Independent, 9/16/89 The family is the closest, most intense, most durable, and influential part of the mesosystem.

The influences of the family extend to all aspects of the child's development; language, nutrition, security, health, and beliefs are all developed through the input and behavior related feedback within the family. The students that come to our schools are largely a product of the family they are a part of. Teachers need to be able to deal with a great variety of family systems in understanding their students. In today's society the family is less frequently the archetypical combination of stay-at-home mother, working father, and sibling children. Single parent families, generation skipping families, and other non-traditional groupings are more common today than the traditional family. Another common force that as changed the family landscape in our society is divorce.

Children of divorced parents often have a split family life, at father's for the weekend, at mother's during the week, or any number of other situations. Divorce is an excellent example of the type of interaction between systems that Bronfenbrenner writes about. The divorce arrangement can have a profound effect on the family and the development of the child, but it is often a product of society, decided by a judge, enforced by social services. In turn, the divorced family affects the community and society because by the proliferation of divorce social attitudes change and the social perception of family is modified. The school is also affected by the changes in a divorced family. Where does the report card go and who comes to parent-teacher conferences?

A number of other systems: community, religion, school, society, and cultural forces from within the mesosystem and the exosystem directly affect the family. Society and the culture of both the family and the neighborhood have influence on the child's perception of the family's place in the community. The family can affect the community through it's needs for services and it's contribution as taxpayers and voters. As the lead-in graphic illustrates, these relationships are all bi-directional and interrelated in a complex and ever changing matrix. Schools "Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten". B.F. Skinner, New Scientist, May 12, 1964 The relationships a child develops in schools become critical to his or her positive development. Because of the amount of time children spend in school, the relationships fostered there carry real weight.

Also, children may for the first time be developing relationships with adults outside their immediate family. These connections help a child develop cognitively and emotionally. Bronfenbrenner highlights the importance of these bi-directional interactions with caring adults in the child's life. He outlines five propositions that describe how relationships developed at home and at school work together for positive development (cited in Family Service America, 1990). Proposition 1: The child must have on-going, long-term mutual interaction with an adult (or adults) who have a stake in the development of the child.

These interactions should be accompanied by a strong tie to the child that ideally is meant to last a life time. It is important for this attachment to be one of unconditional love and support. This person must believe the child is "the best", and the child must know that the adult has this belief. Proposition 2: This strong tie and the pattern of interpersonal interaction it provides will help the child relate to features of his or her mesosystem.

The skills and confidence encouraged by the initial relationships will increase the child's ability to effectively explore and grow from outside activities. Proposition 3: Attachments and interactions with other adults will help the child progress to more complex relationships with his or her primary adults. The child will gain affirmation from a third party relationship, and will bring those new skills to the primary relationship. Also, these secondary adults will give support to the primary adults, and help the child see the importance of the primary role. Proposition 4: The relationships between the child and his primary adults will progress only with repeated two-way interchanges and mutual compromise. Children need these interchanges at home and at school or childcare - parents need these interchanges in their neighborhoods and workplaces.

Proposition 5: The relationships between the child and adults in his or her life require also a public attitude of support and affirmation of the importance of these roles. Public policies must enable time and resources for these relationships to be nurtured, and a culture-wide value must be placed on the people doing this work. This includes the work of parents and teachers, but also the efforts of extended family, friends, co- workers, and neighbors These five propositions have implications for practice in schools today. Bronfenbrenner sees the instability and unpredictability of modern family life as the most destructive force to a child's development (Addison, 1992). This destructive force may spill over into the school setting. Some children do not have the constant mutual interaction with important adults that is necessary for development.

According to the ecological theory, if the relationships in the immediate family break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his mesosystem. These deficiencies show themselves especially in schools as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self-direction (Addison, 1992). It seems now that it is necessary for schools and teachers to provide support for stable, long-term relationships between students and parents, and also between students and mentors, and students and teachers. Addison, J.T. (1992). Urie Bronfenbrenner.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1990). Community "Though neighboring communities overlook one another and the crowing of cocks and barking of dogs can be heard, Yet the people there may grow old and die without ever visiting one another". Lao Tzu, 6 Century B.C., The Way of Lao Tzu, verse 80 The involvement of the structures in a child's mesosystem are meant to provide the adult relationships required for positive development. The bioecological systems theory holds that these bi-directional relationships are the foundation for a child's cognitive and emotional growth. Structures of the exosystem, such as community, society, and culture, provide the support for these relationships.

They provide the values, material resources, and context within which these relationships operate. Increasingly, however, we have seen a breakdown in the structures of a child's mesosystem. For example, in 1999, at least 25% of children live with a single parent. That figure rises to 55% for African-American children (Dean, M. & Huitt, W. 1999). Further, 20% of all children in this country live in a household whose annual income falls below the poverty level. This rate is double among African-American and Latino families (Dean, M. & Huitt, W. 1999).

Increasing number of hours worked outside the home by both mothers and fathers means that they have less time to spend being involved in their child's development. With this breakdown occurring on the mesosystemic level, the structures of Bronfenbrenner's exosystem must be called upon to shore up or provide primary relationships. Communities provide parents with access to people with similar concerns that can function as resources and emotional support. Communities also provide child care, parent employment, and programs designed to encourage interaction among families. Partnerships between community agencies and business and industry will provide invaluable resources for families. Research by Lewis and Morris (1998) provided a list of five basic needs for positive development in children: (1) a personal relationship with a caring adult, (2) a safe place to live, (3) a healthy start toward their future, (4) a marketable skill to use after graduation from high school, and (5) an opportunity to contribute to their community.

Partnerships within the community can help provide for these needs. Federal and state-run agencies exist within communities in order to help them provide for families needs. They create a series of referral touch points for families in need of health, financial, or crisis assistance. Following are examples of such agencies: County Resources Family Crisis Center Family Resource Center La Causa Family Center Parent Stress Line Sexual Assault Treatment Center The Parenting Network Health and Legal Resources Medical Referral Services Legal Clinics County Office of Mental Health Coordination among these agencies, parents, and schools will help provide a safety net for families in crisis - and will provide a solid resource for strengthening all relationships within a child's mesosystem.

Society "If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich". John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, Jan. 20, 1961 Much like the other structures of the exosystem, a child's society is responsible for providing resources that enable structures of the child's mesosystem to flourish, thus aiding in the child's positive development. Societal values, legislation, and financial resources provided by our society also create the context in which families function. For example, the length of a typical employees' workday is governed largely by societal custom. Also, laws governing the rights of families and the treatment of children are created from societal family values. Perhaps the biggest contribution to family welfare made by society, however, is the financial safety net provided by government entitlement programs.

Bronfenbrenner provides an interesting explanation of breakdowns that have occurred at the societal level that have attributed to problems within mesosystemic relationships. He explains that technology has changed our society, and while we are taking great pains to safeguard the physical environment from the damage done by a technology, we have spent no resources to provide similar safeguards to the damage done to our societal environment. (Henderson, 1995). Also of concern to Bronfenbrenner is the "deficit" model used to determine the level of support granted by public entitlement programs to struggling families. Then, we expect them to have the psychological strength to climb up the thin rope we throw down. Bronfenbrenner would agree that it is in the best interest of our entire society to lobby for political and economic policies that support the importance of parent's roles in their children's development.

He would also agree that we should foster societal attitudes that value work done on behalf of children at all levels: parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work supervisors, legislators (Henderson, 1995). Culture "What other culture could have produced someone like Hemming way and not seen the joke?" Gore Vidal, Pink Triangle and Yellow Star, (1982) Children are affected by their culture through the communication of beliefs and customs parents receive from other structures in the mesosystem and exosystem. Our culture dictates beliefs concerning religion, school, family, and community life. Generations pass on cultural values via these structures, and the developing child receives them in turn. For example, one culture in this country has the belief that parents are primarily responsible for their child's up-bringing. To need help with the task of providing for one's family is seen by the culture as negative.

Because of this belief, our society has passed legislation that provides aid for families based on a deficit model. Another example can be seen in the cultural value of independence. Because of this value, people believe a necessary component of success in our society is individuality or separateness. This belief is responsible for fostering a competitive model in our educational and economic systems, rather than a cooperative one.

Cultural beliefs have real power in affecting all Bronfenbrenner's systems. These beliefs are deeply held and become a basis for a child's sense of self (Seifert, 1999). Because of the role culture plays in identity, there is a potential for conflict between cultures represented in this country. We may come together to form one society, yet we maintain different cultures - ethnic, religious, and national. The force of the dominant culture in communicating conflicting messages to families of other cultures can create crises of identity in children (Seifert, 1999). The cultural message of ideological support that is available for families in the dominant culture can be one of cultural disapproval for families of minority cultures.

Global Influences in the Macrosystem "Dust from the African deserts is bringing germs and fungi across the Atlantic... some 25 percent of the microbes were known plant pathogens that affect elm trees or such crops as peaches, cotton and rice". By Randolph E. Schmid, Associated Press Writer There is no way to ignore the impact that global events have on even local individuals as we enter the twenty-first century. In times past, events across an ocean weren't even known until days or weeks later and their impact on life in the United States was thought to be negligible. With satellites linking every corner of the planet, global news is a constant in the lives of today's children. Weather satellites show us that a plume of carbon dioxide produced by forest fires in China contributes to the smog in L.A. a few days later. Entire herds of cattle are destroyed to stop the spread of BSE across international borders.

We are, in this new century, truly living in a global village. Global influences on our children are not just limited to ecological and health issues, economic forces are much more reactive to international events than they were in the recent past. Changes in employment opportunities as a result of offshore competition can have a direct effect on a family when the wage earner is "downsized". Communities can suffer tremendous economic stresses when a local business closes, or relocates to take advantage of lower wage costs in another country. These events can impact school district funding as well as student's families.

What is the impact of a business in a small Wisconsin town expanding by building a new manufacturing facility in Costa Rica instead of locally? The profits that made the expansion possible were earned through the efforts of people in the community; they did their jobs well and the company prospered. Their wages helped local business succeed and local contractors were paid to build them new houses. When the expansion was placed in Costa Rica, the local impact was that there were no additional jobs added in the community and that the funds used for this expansion were paid to contractors in Costa Rica instead of here. The local tax base saw no increase, there was no added sales tax collected from purchases by the new employees that didn't come.

No more new houses were built. The list of direct effects on the community is very long, and this is only one small business in one small town. The other side of the equation is that the town in Costa Rica received an economic boon. We can only speculate that they may have been able to build a new school, or expand a local hospital. Certainly the local builders and the employees of the new facility benefited, and in turn their community was enriched by this transaction. We can see from examining just this one example that the economic shifts we will witness in the coming decades as global trade initiatives proliferate will have social and economic effects on our communities and lives as broad and possibly as overwhelming as the wars of the last century.