Models O The Social Learning Theory example essay topic

I. Biological bases of behavior Students should recognize biological psychology as a perspective of psychology. Specifically, students should recognize: 1. The organization of the nervous system into the CNS and PNS: o The Central Nervous System-CNS- Brain and Spinal Cord. The Peripheral Nervous System-PNS- are the Nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord. 2. The structure and functions of neurons: o Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system.

The human central nervous system contains about 100 billion neurons. Neurons have a communicative role in the nervous system. Neurons can receive, integrate, and transmit information. 3. How neurotransmitters are related to behavior: o Acetylcholine (Ach) - Activates motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles. Contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal, and memory.

Some Ach receptors stimulated by nicotine (the nicotine acts like Ach itself and binds to receptor sites for Ach). o Dopamine (DA) - Contributes to control of voluntary movement, pleasurable emotions. Decreased levels associated with Parkinson's disease. Over activity at DA synapses with schizophrenia. Cocaine and amphetamine elevate activity at DA synapses. o Norepinephrine (NE) - Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal. Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses. o Serotonin (SHT) - Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, and aggression. Abnormal levels may contribute to depression and OCD.

Prozac and Zoloft are antidepressant drugs that affect serotonin. o GABA (gamma-amino butyrin acid) - Most common inhibitory NT. Valium and Xanax (also alcohol) are anti-anxiety drugs that work at GABA synapses. GABA appears to be responsible for much of the inhibition in the CNS. GABA contributes to the regulation of anxiety. 4. The specialized functions of the brain's hemisphere: The Hindbrain consists of the medulla, oblong ata, pons, and the cerebellum. o The medulla contains 3 vital centers: o Cardiac center- This controls rate and force of the heart beat Vasomotor center-adjust blood vessel diameter to regulate blood pressure and reroute blood from one part of the body to another. o Respirator centers- control the rate and depth of breathing.

Pons - contains nuclei that relay signals from the cerebrum to the cerebellum. It is concerned with sleep, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensations, respirations, swallowing, bladder control and posture. Cerebellum- mostly concerned with muscular coordination. Midbrain- Short segment of the brain stem that connects the hindbrain and forebrain.

Reticular Formation- runs vertically through the core of the midbrain, pons, and medulla, it functions modulations of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception; it has an equal role in the regulation of sleep and arousal. Forebrain- largest and most complex region of the brain. Consist of thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum. Hypothalamus not- serves as vital link between the brain and the endocrine system. Major role in the regulation of basic biological drives related to survival- fight, flight, food, and sex. Also, controls thirst, hunger, temperature regulation, falling asleep and walking, memory and emotional behavior (anger, aggression, fear, pleasure, contentment, and sex drive).

Limbic- involved in the regulation of emotion, memory, and motivation. Cerebrum- Largest and most complex part of the human brain, responsible for the most complex mental activities, including learning, remembering, thinking, and consciousness itself. It is divided into 2 hemispheres - right and left. The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus.

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital. Furthermore, each lobe is dedicated to specific purposes. Frontal Lobe - forehead - concerned with voluntary motor functions, motivation, foresight, planning, memory, mood, emotion, social judgment, and aggression (called primary motor cortex) Temporal Lobe - sides of the head- concerned with hearing, smell, learning, memory, visual recognition, and emotional behavior. (Called primary auditory cortex) Partial Lobe -both sides- top of head- This lobe is concerned with the sensory reception and integration of (touch), taste, and some visual information. (Called primary cortex) Occipital Lobe- in the back on the head- principle visual center of the brain called the visual cortex. Cerebral Lateralization: The difference in the function of the two hemispheres.

One hemisphere, usually the left, is called the categorical hemisphere. Specialized for spoken and written language and for the sequential and analytical reasoning employed in such fields as science and math. Broca's area- important role in the production of speech. Werniche's area- comprehension of language. The other hemisphere, usually the right is called the representational hemisphere. It is the seat of imagination and insight, musical and artistic skill, perception of patterns and spatial relationship, and comparison of sights, sounds, smells, and tastes.

Cerebral lateralization is highly correlation with handedness. 91% of Americans are right handed. The left hemisphere is the categorical one in 96% of the people are right hemisphere is 4%. Among left-handed people, the right hemisphere is categorical in 15%, the left hemisphere in 705. Darwin's key insights that represents the essence of evolution: o What Darwin contributed in his landmark book, The Origin of Species, was a creative new explanation for how and why evolutionary changes unfolded over time. He identified natural selection as the mechanism that orchestrates the process of evolution.

First, he noted that organisms vary in endless ways such as size, speed, strength, aspects of appearances, visual abilities, hear capacities, digestive processes, cell structure, and so forth. He also stated that some of these characteristics are heritable. Third, borrowing from the work of Thomas Malthus, he noted that organisms tend to produce offspring at a pace that outstrips the local availability of food supplies, living space, and other crucial resources. 6. Family, twin, adoption studies as methods used to investigate the influence of heredity and environment on behavior: o Family: Assess hereditary influences by examining blood relatives to see how much the resemble one another by a specific trait. If heredity affects the trait under scrutiny, researchers should find phenotypic similarity (observable traits) among relatives.

Example: find more similarity among relatives who share more genes (siblings should exhibit more similarity than cousins). A number of family studies to asses the contribution of heredity to the development schizophrenic disorders. First degree relatives of schizophrenic patients have a higher risk of developing schizophrenic disorders. The right for siblings of schizophrenic patients is about 9% instead of the 1% for unrelated people. Second degree relative = 4% greater risk.

Third degree relative = 2% greater risk. General population = 1% risk. o Twin: Twin studies can yield better evidence about the possible role of genetic factors. In twins studies researchers assess hereditary influences by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait. This has to do with genetic relatedness.

Identical twins emerge from a zygote that splits. Thus they have exactly the same genotype they genetic relatedness is 100%. Fraternal twins emerge from 2 separate zygotes, so their genetic relatedness is only 50%. In comparing the different sets of twins - both types develop under equally similar environment conditions. However, identical twins share more genetic kinship and they tend to exhibit more similarity on a trait than fraternal twins. So it is reasonable to infer than this greater similarity is probably do to heredity rather than environment. o Adoption: Adoption studies assess hereditary influences by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents.

Most of these studies include subjects that were given up for adoption n early infancy and were raised without having contact with their biological parents. The logic underlying the adoption study approach: if adopted children resemble their biological parents or a trait, even though they were not raised by them, genetic factors probably influenced that trait. If adopted children resemble the adoptive parents, even though they inherited no genes from them, environmental factors probably influence the trait. II. Research Methods 1. o The difference between an independent and dependant variable in a hypothesis or research question: a. 2 o The difference between operation definitions and their importance to drawing conclusions: a.

Operational definitions describe the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable. o How does X affect Y? a. X is the independent variable, which means, it is the condition or event that is manipulated by the researcher in order to see its impact on another variable. Y is the dependant variable, which means it is the variable thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable. 2. o Why causal relationships cannot be inferred from correlation designs: a. Descriptive / correlation methods permit investigators to only describe patterns of behavior and discover links or associations between variables.

Correlation research cannot demonstrate conclusively that two variables are causally related. o The strength or direction of a correlation coefficient: a. Correlation coefficient - a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables. The correlation coefficients can range from -1.0 to + 1.0. 3. The difference between a self-report and an observational method of data collection: a. Self report is reporting on self feeling or opinions observations are on others.

4. The importance of control and replication to the validity of research studies. And, the importance of, and examples of, control issues such as assignment procedures, control groups, placebos, and blind procedures: a. An experimental group consists of subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.

Where as a, control group consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group. Replication- is the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated. Sampling bias- exists when a sample is not representative of the pop lati on which it is drawn. Placebo effects- occur when participants' expectations lead them to experience some changes even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment. Double-blind procedure- a research strategy in which neither subjects nor experiments know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups. 5. o The definition of deception and why deception is sometimes used in experiments as well as examples illustrating the use of deception: a. Deception is used to avoid or reduce problems due to placebo effect, the unreliability of self-reports, eat. o The definition and purpose of debriefing: a.

After experiment is over, being able to explain the deception used. Learning 1. o The stimulus and response elements of classical conditioning and recognize examples of each: a. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. o What is meant by stimulus generalization and discrimination and recognize examples of each: a. Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus dos not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. o How a classical conditioned response is extinguished: a. Extinction- the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned responded tendency.

What leads to extinction in classical conditioning? The consistent presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone, w / o the unconditioned stimulus. For example Pavlov consistently presented only the tone to a previously conditioned dog, the ton gradually lost its capacity to eli city the response of salivation. o How classical conditioning can affect daily life: a. A noise that makes your react in a way that you shouldn't 2. o The components of an operant contingency: a. Annocedant then behavior the consequence Definitions and examples of positive and negative reinforcement: a. Negative- The strengthening of a response b / c it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.

Positive- Reinforcement that occurs when a response is strengthened b / c it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. o Definitions and examples of punishment: a. An event that follows a response that weakens or suppresses the tendency to make that response. o The differential effectiveness of reinforcement vs. punishment: a. Less effective to punish that to reinforce. 3. o The influence of vicarious punishment and reinforcement: a. Vic. (?) punishment and reinforcement is learning through watching others being punished. o The process necessary for observational learning: a. A type of learning that occurs when an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. o The social learning theory can assume that learning can occur without performance: a. Understand that social learning theory assumes that learning can occur without performance.

IV. Memory 1. Define, contrast, and compare the three process in the information-processing model of memory: a. Encoding-involves forming a memory code. b. Storage- involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time. c. Retrieval- involves recovering information from memory stored.

2. Define, contrast, and compare the three major components of the information-processing model of memory: The sensory memory preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second. Know the sensory memory and characteristics, including capacity, length of storage, and way of processing of info and how info is represented: o Sensory memory and its characteristics, including capacity, length of storage, way of processing of information and how information is represented: A. Sensory memory allows the sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over. The memory also preserves the sensory image long enough for you to perceive a continuous circle rather than separate points of light. The brief preservation of sensation in sensory memory gives you additional time to try to recognize stimuli. o b. STM, or working memory, and its characteristic including capacity, length of storage, way of processing of information, and how information is represented: b.

Short-term memory is limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds. o LTM and its characteristic including capacity, length of storage, way of processing of information and how info is represented: c. Long-term memory in an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time. LTM can store information indefinitely. In fact, one point of view is that all information stored in long-term memory is stored there permanently. 3. o Two types of rehearsal: a. The two types of rehearsal are the process of repetitively verbalizing and thinking about the information. Elaboration links a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding. o Decay and interference theories of forgetting: a.

The decay theory proposes that forgetting occurs b / c memory traces fade with time. And, interference theory proposes that people forget information b / c of competition from other material. V. Development 1. o Recognize the examples of behavior in the: a. Sensorimotor- Coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence. Pre operational- Development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibly, cent ration, and egocentrism. Concrete Operational Period- Mental operations applied to concrete events; mastery of conservation, hierarchical classification. Formation Operational Period- Mental operations applied to abstract ideas; logical, systematic thinking.

Conservation- Piaget's term for the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance. o Know the definitions and examples of: a. Object permanence- develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible. Conservation- This is Piaget's term for the ware ness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance. Egocentrism- In thinking is characterized by a limited ability to share another person's view-point. Assimilation- involves interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures w / o changing them. Accommodation- involves changes existing mental structures to explain new experiences.

2. Understand the attachment theory, including procedure and major results of Harlow's attachment research with nonhuman primates: a. Harlow took monkeys away from their mothers when they were new born and made two artificial mothers. One was made of wire and had a nipple so that the baby could feed off it and the other was made of terry cloth and was soft. The purpose of that idea was that the monkey could go to it for security when it felt frightened 3. Know the role gender plays in socialization: a.

Gender differences are actual disparities between the sexes in typical behavior or average ability. 4. Know the defining features and examples of adolescent identity crises: a. Identity diffusion- is a state of rudderless apathy. Some people simply refuse to confront the challenge of charting a life course and committing to an ideology. Although this stance allows them to evade the crisis of identity, the lack of direction can become problematic, as people in this status exhibit more social and psychological problems than others.

Identity foreclosure- is a premature commitment to visions, values, and roles-typically those prescribed by one's parents. This path allows a person to circumvent much of the struggle for an identity. However, it may backfire and cause problems later. Identity moratorium-involves delaying commitment for a while to experiment with alternative ideologies and careers. Such experiments can be valuable. Unfortunately, some people remain indefinitely in what should be a temporary phase.

Identity moratorium is associated with self-doubt and confusion. Identity achievement- involves arriving at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilities. Commitments have the strength of some conviction, although they " re not absolutely irrevocable. Identify achievement is associated with higher self-esteem, greater security, and a variety of other healthy traits. 5. Eriksson's lifespan development theory: o Stage 1- Trust vs. Mistrust o Stage 2- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Stage 3- Initiative vs. Guilty Stage 4- Industry vs. Inferiority o Stage 5-Identity vs. Confusion Stage 6- Intimacy vs. Isolation Stage 7-Genera tivity vs. Self-Absorption Stage 8- Integrity vs. Despair VI.

Social Influences 1. Social cognition, impression formation, first impression seems to matter: o Primary effect: a. The first impression matters the mos to Self-fulfilling prophecy- a process by which an initial impression causes us to illicit behavior in another that confirms that impression. 2. Attribution- The process of explaining the causes of people's behavior, including one's own. Internal attribution- Characteristics of the person (disposition al / personal) External attribution- Aspects of the situation (situational) 3.

Social Influences Conformity- Asch study of different length lines: a. Asch Study not- Indicated Public Conformity- conforming to the group response despite their own perception did not concur. People are more likely to eventually conform to the group response if no other person comes around to their side. Similarly if some one begins to come around to their way of thinking then they are less likely to conform to the majority. o Obedience-Mil gram shock study. 24. Social Action Define Deindividuationa.

De individuation- A psychological state occurring in a group member that results in a loss of individuality and a tendency to do things not normally done when alone. o Altruism and Helping: a. Helping behavior- any act that is intended to benefit another person. 1. Bystander effect: People are less likely to provide need help when they are in groups than when they are alone.

2. Factors that affect helping behavior: a. Group size affects helping behavior-the more people the less prone people are to help. o Group Decision Making: 3. Group polarization- occurs when group discussion strengthens a group's dominant point of view and produces a shift toward a more extreme decision in that direction.

4. Social loafing is a reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work by themselves.