Number Of Approaches To Management Research example essay topic

Discuss the main differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches to data collection, and analysis in management research. Make references to the philosophical assumptions, which underpin these methodological approaches. What is Research? 'Research is life! Its curiosity! Its excitement!

Research looks at the world as a source of information and of answers to questions that begin: Why? How? What... Research involves putting together the pieces of a puzzle.

' (Rothstein, 1985, Pg 30). Research is used in nearly all areas of life. It is one way of critically examining various aspects by understanding and formulating principles that governing procedures (Kumar 1996, Pg 2). Theory plays a very important role in developing this understanding of research, and can be seen as the pieces that hold the research together (Rothstein 1985, Pg 33). This suggests that research and theory together can be used to help improve or expand further knowledge and understanding. Howard and Sharp (1983) suggested that research is associated with activities, which are removed from everyday life.

In contrast however Lundberg (1942) draws a parallel between scientific research process and the processes we use in everyday lives, he stated 'scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data... this process is one, people engage in the course of their daily lives. ' This shows that research can range from the fairly informal, based on impression and involves simple activity designed to prove answers to very simple questions. To the strictly scientific which is based on conventional procedures (Rothstein, 1996, Pg 30), these procedures can then be used to formulate theories and laws that govern our every day lives. Therefore research can involve numbers or be generated through words. The following essay will discuss in detail two main paradigms in research methodology, Quantitative and Qualitative, and discuss them in terms of data collection and philosophical assumptions within the management sector. Why research in Management The purpose of research is to solve problems in a systematic way, it therefore follows that business and management research is the undertaking of systematic research to find out about business and management, and to provide processes for solving managerial problems (Saunders 2000, Pg 2).

Research is important in management due to its 'practical problem solving and decision making'; these are commonly used techniques in companies and therefore represent what managers do (Ghauri 2002, Pg 89). This suggests then that research is essential in the understanding of everyday phenomena that managers handle. Research into management is also important to the company as: 'Businesses are beginning to develop a strategic monitoring program to identify and understand competitor's strengths and weakness and overall business strategy'. (Small business report, Jan 1989: 21, referencing Ghauri, 2002, Pg 9). This shows the increasing importance placed on manager's decisions and actions; therefore it is important that these issues are investigated or researched in order to gather more information and become more successful. Within management research a positivist approach still remains the most dominant research methods (Alvesson and Deet z, 2000; Alvesson and Will mott 1996 quoted in Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 8).

It is regarded as an approach which leads to interesting and profound insight into complex problems (Remenyi et al, 2002, Pg 33). However there is a common stereotype held within the sector of management, that research methods are 'remote, ivory-tower individuals working on issues of little practical relevance' (Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 8). This negative view of research could reflect the ever-changing structures of management or the changing working climate. Research methods are seen as static and non-changing, it is a common view held within society and other sectors, that research activities are 'removed from daily life and usually take place within a laboratory' (Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 8).

This therefore suggests that research has little to do with what is in practise going with management. Within it self, management is the implementation of polices and practises into the 'real world', dealing with people and every day situations. It is unsurprising that there are a number of approaches to management research (Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 10). A number of researchers believe that that the positivist approach is not the only approach to research in the management sector, preferring the opt for a more 'methodological purisms', that there is no one best method of research (Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 10) this suggests that business and management research needs to engulf in both the world of theory and the world of practise, there is need to encourage interactions between these to worlds rather than one approach alone (Saunders 2000, Pg 2). Different paradigms Kuhn (1962) defined a paradigm as '... a series of assumptions about the nature of reality, knowledge, and truth which often influences a scientist in a subtle even subconscious way' (Hardy 1997, Pg 257). There are two different paradigms of research, a positivist paradigm relating to quantitative approaches to research and a phenomenological paradigm concerned with qualitative approaches to research.

Since the 1960's there has been growing recognition that both paradigms have their place, and that the research purpose should determine the mode of inquiry, hence the paradigm (Kumar 1996, Pg 12). Quantitative Approach Quantitative research is based on the statement 'anything that exists exists in a certain quantity and can be measured' (Custer, 1996, Pg 3, referencing web). Methods of collection are adopted from the physical sciences, and are designed to ensure objectivity and reliability to ensure that the results can be generalised (Weinreich 1996, Pg 1). Quantitative researchers collect and study the relationship of one set of facts against another, and use techniques that are likely to produce quantified results that can be generalised as a whole (Bell 1999, Pg 7).

This suggests that anything that is quantitative can be measured, so hypotheses can be formulated and tested. Quantitative research is based on the positivist thought, and until recently was considered the best method of conducting any meaningful research (Fierro 2003, Pg 1). Techniques used generally ensure that participants are selected at random from the population in an unbiased way, at all time the research must remain external, as the results obtained can be replicated no matter who conducted the research. Techniques are standardised, and methods of collection include surveys, quasi - experiments and closed questionnaires, which can provide numerical data, all methods generally receive statistical methods of analysis to test the hypothesis (Weinreich 1996, Pg 1). All are delivered within a very structured application. The advantages of using quantitative data collection, is that it produces generally large quantities of reliable data, that can be generalised in other aspects, it is most appropriate in cases where a cause and effect result are needed, or comparing different variable against a base line, however the greatest weakness of the paradigm is in the philosophical assumptions of the approach.

It fails to recognise the importance of human behaviour and the difference that exist, by removing the event from the original setting or 'world setting', common variable which might effect the outcome are ignored, for example will a human beings actions be the same when inside a lab or inside their familiar surrounding such as their office when researching the effects of different types of management style on performance outcomes? Despite these weaknesses quantitative research has been held in high esteem within the sector of management due to the empirical -analytic inquiry, aiming to produce a universal principle of institutional life, revealing a system that is applicable to similar situations (Fierro 2003, Pg 2). Within Human resource management this concept is similar to the notion of Best practise, which urges companies to find the best polices and practises which can be applied in all situations. Similarly to best practise the type of research needed will depend on the situation and actual research being conducted. This approach is viewed as a positivist paradigm which is a 'family of philosophies characterised by extreme positive evaluation of science and scientific method' (Reese, 1980 quoted in Hardy 1997, Pg 258).

The positivist paradigm has a deductive approach; deductive is concerned with drawing logical responses through logical reasoning (Ghauri 2002, Pg 14) within research this references specific laws and principles within set theoretical frameworks. Within this paradigm the world is viewed, as external, the observer and subject are independent allowing for all findings to be objective, therefore can be generalised whist identifying casual relationships. This view assumes that at all times scientific enquiry is viewed as value free (Lincoln and Guba 1985, as quoted in Hardy 1997, Pg 258). Therefore Quantitative researchers collect and study the relationship of one set of facts against another, and use techniques that are likely to produce quantified results that can be generalised as a whole (Bell 1999, Pg 7). Quantitative methods of data collection or positivist paradigm have been popular within the sector of management due to the conclusions that can be obtained, as they are considered to be more reliable and statistically valid (Fierro 2003, Pg 2) therefore have more sufficient grounding and look more impressive to those who are approached with quantitative results, maybe thought of as more substantial therefore more superior. Qualitative Approach Hoe pfi (1997) described the nature of qualitative data collection as the 'Phenomenological inquiry uses a naturalistic approach that seeks to understand phenomena in context- specific settings... ' (web).

Qualitative research is more sensitive in approach to data collection, compared to quantitative approaches, it allows for sensitivity in complex issues such as human sexuality and issues such as the death penalty (web). In the sense of management, qualitative approach could be used to gather opinions on a particular managers management style, something that may be a sensitive issue, and something which people may find uncomfortable talking about especially if negative. A phenomenological paradigm assumes that the realities are 'holistic, created and multiple' (Lincoln and Guba 1985, as quoted in Hardy 1997. Pg 258, Remenyi 2002, Pg 361), this approach sees the world from a social context, focussing on meaning and understanding why and what is happening rather then complying with fundamental laws and procedures. The phenomenological paradigm has an inductive approach to research, it is based on empirical evidence, which draws general conclusion from empirical observations, and however we can never be 100% certain that the conclusions, as observations are sometimes wrong (Ghauri 2002, Pg 13).

It draws from specific instances and issues from everyday life, this approach allows for the subject and observer to become interrelated, however the findings cannot be generalised and casual relationships cannot be determined, due to the interrelation of subject and observer this approach believes that science is driven by human interests, and therefore is value bound (Hardy 1997, Pg 258). Qualitative researchers are therefore more concerned generally at understanding the individual, and their perceptions of the world (Bell 1999, Pg 7). Qualitative approach looks at the meaning and cause of a situation the methods of data collection view 'events, actions norms and values from the perceptive of the person or people being studied' (Byrne 2002, Pg 145). Based on this qualitative research is a vast and complicated area, therefore there are a number of approaches used within qualitative data collection. Ethnography is an important approach used within qualitative data collection, it is a broad area which primarily studies an entire culture, although originally largely used in the area of ethnicity and geographic location, it is now used to study the 'culture of a business or used in defining groups (web). There are many roles that an ethnographer may adopt when collecting data, their primary aim is engulf themselves within the research in a natural setting, or participate in the research themselves, without the participants actually knowing that they are the researcher (Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 144).

There are no preset limits as to what can be observed, as well as no real ending point; it is up to the researcher to stop. A commonly used ethnographic approach is participant observation, which can require months or years of intensive work (web). This method allows for the researcher to participate in the lives of the subjects in question, therefore not only observing what is happening but to actually experience it (Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 144). In terms of management this type of method would allow researchers to submerge themselves into a business culture, and find out what people actually did rather than what the say the do (Mintz berg 1973 referencing Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 145). Field research is a broader approach to qualitative research, the researcher goes and observe the phenomenon in its natural setting, whilst similar to ethnology the researcher does not become submerged in the research, direct observations may be used, were the researcher watches rather than take part, a specific sample or situations will be observed rather than becoming immersed in the entire culture (web). Qualitative research involves techniques that are not statistically based, but are especially suited to the individual or small-scale analysis (Finch 1986, Pg 5) i.e. open-ended questionnaires or interviews, therefore focuses on the meaning rather than the facts.

These methods allow for greater flexibility in the research design. Therefore qualitative research looks not so much for 'cause and effect' a strictly scientific approach but seeks to uncover the meaning of social events for example, based upon lived experiences (Finch 1986, Pg 7) and how individuals interpret situations and what their perspectives are on particular issues (Woods 1999, Pg 3). The key advantages generated by qualitative approaches are the results gathered excel at 'telling the story' in the eye of the participant, rich detailed data is generated (Weinreich 1996, Pg 2, as referenced (web), the focus is on the processes and the reason why, whilst addressing correlations between variable. However the data collection methods used can be time consuming and costly, it is also hard to determine whether the findings can be generalised, however some researchers don't care about this, they believe that it is more important to generate rich sources of detailed data (web). Philosophical assumptions There is as firm belief that the quantitative and qualitative debate is philosophical, both approaches work under different assumptions. Quantitative research doesn't recognise the relevance of human subjectivity, were qualitative recognises the relevance of this subjectivity (Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 173).

Qualitative researcher what to understand phenomenon, but believe that the best way to understand it is thorough viewing it in context in the natural world settings. Being positivist implies that the researcher is concerned with an observable social reality, and that the conclusion from such findings can be used to produce laws and generalisation (Remenyi et al, 2002, Pg 32). The philosophical stance, which sees the researcher as an objective analyst and interpreter of tangible social reality, this assumes that the researcher is independent, whilst also assuming that the evidence collected is critical which will be possible to generalise, especially in the mathematical sense, in order to lend themselves to statistical analysis (Remenyi et al, 2002, Pg 33). Compared to phenomenology, which is a school of thought that considers the world as objective reality, focussing on the subjective consciousness; each situation and individual is regarded as unique. The philosophical stance implies that the researcher is not independent to the research in fact becomes an intrinsic part of it. Phenomenology believes that the world can be modelled, not in a mathematical sense, but a verbal or descriptive model (Remenyi et al 2002, Pg 34).

Not surprising this approach aims to understand the reality of world, by suggesting that the world is not one single objective reality, but a series of multiply realities. Both inductive and deductive methods are thought to be a circular process, where facts are gained though observation which can lead to theory and hypothesis, being drawn, while deductive approaches are concerned with accepting or rejecting such theories or hypothesis (Ghauri 2002, Pg 14-15). Therefore induction could be seen as the first step to wards scientific methods, while deduction searches for the consequences and gather the results to confirm or disprove. Triangular Approach Dentin (1970) defines triangulation as 'a combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon' (Gill and Johnson 2002, Pg 200). Bryman agreed with this theory, suggesting that different perceptive could work together to establish a sense of the 'real world' (Byrne 2002, Pg 145). It was suggested by Smith (1975) that a multiple method approach could cancel out the strengths and the weaknesses of both methodological approaches, therefore could quantitative analysis become more human focussed?

Could qualitative analysis become concerned with the importance of numbers? The main problem that under lines the notion of a triangular approach is that many researchers still strongly view both paradigms as different. Although quantitative data is typically associated with numbers, and qualitative data with words, these are not fundamentally as different as they might seem. Anything that is qualitative can have a numerical value associated with it, questions such as 'how many people have the particular problem, how many people hold that attitude', and then the study is classified as quantitative (Kumar 1996, Pg 10). This can help to add meaning to the data; this does not distract the qualitative information but opens up new possibilities.

Similarly anything that is quantitative can be interpreted through qualitative assumptions, numbers by themselves cannot be interpreted, without understanding the assumptions that underlie them. An example is a Likehert scale, which uses numerical data to assert a mean to numbers, however this data has t be interpreted through judgements and assumptions (web). On some scale quantitative and qualitative data cannot be separated, whilst neither is exactly the same, they are not totally different. To do good research we therefore must appreciate the need for both approaches. Conclusion Quantitative approaches relay on deduction, firmly based on positivism, which relays heavily on structured methods employed by 'natural science'.

Where Qualitative approaches relay on inductive methods firmly based on constructivism, which relays on more objective methods of research (Gill and Johnson 2002, P 10). Both quantitative and qualitative approaches have their strengths and weakness, and advantages and disadvantages. 'Neither one is markedly superior to the other in all respects' (Ackroyd and Hughes 1992 Pg 30, as quoted in Kumar 1996, Pg 12). A phenomenological approach to research is holistic, this allows for a much more complicated situation to be examined, allowing for the characteristics of a setting and the nature of the researcher to be appreciated within the research, compared to a positivist approach where they are removed. The positivist morel of research is more likely to be expressed mathematically then phenomenology, which will be expressed through words or diagrams (Remenyi et al, 2002, Pg 36). Therefore both approaches can be used to explore different assumptions.

Since the mid 1960's there has been growing understanding and recognition that both paradigms have their place within research, and whether either paradigm can be separated from the other. It has been suggested that it is the research purpose that should determine the type of paradigm (Kumar 96, Pg 12, recognising that different types of research will 'seek through different methodical processes' or a combination of both. Regardless of the choice of paradigm, the work should always hold to certain values regarding the control of bias, maintenance of objectivity throughout the research process and conclusions drawn (Kumar 96, Pg 120). It is only the application of these values that enable it to be called a 'research processes'.