Rape Attitudes And Empathy Toward Rape Survivors example essay topic

Ch wee Lye Chang (Dec. 1999) An Assessment of College Students' Attitudes and Empathy Toward Rape. College Student Journal Methods: The study is a descriptive cross-sectional survey implemented to assess students' attitudes toward rape and empathy toward survivors of rape. A pilot study using 30 college students with a two-week interval was used to establish reliability of the ATR and RES. Subject's birth day, month, and first three digits of their phone numbers were used as identifies for the retest portion of the pilot study. A two-tailed t test was performed comparing test scores across the 2-week interval. Statistical analysis found a 1.0 correlation for demographic data, .

91 alpha reliability coefficient for the ATR, and a. 80 alpha reliability coefficient for the RES. Therefore, the ATR and RES were deemed reliable for the study. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to assess rape attitudes and empathy levels of college students in a selected university setting in North Texas. Sample: A total sample of 300 subjects was needed to ensure representation within a confidence interval of 95% and.

05 sampling error. The sample was drawn from the following courses: from the College of Business Administration, the course 'Principles of Real Estate' provided 107 subjects; from the College of Arts and Sciences, the course 'U.S. History to 1865' provided 89 students; from the College of Education, 'Family Life / Human Sexuality' and 'Health Emergency / First Aid' were selected, providing 110 subjects. Hypotheses: 1. Students who either have known a rape survivor or have themselves been a survivor of rape, will express more rape-intolerant attitudes toward rape and greater empathy levels toward rape survivors than students who have not known a rape survivor or have been the survivor of a rape. 2. Students with female siblings will report more rape-intolerant attitudes toward rape and greater empathy toward rape survivors than students without female siblings.

3. Female students will have more rape-intolerant attitudes toward rape and greater empathy levels toward rape survivors than those of their male counterparts. 4. Students over the age of twenty-six will demonstrate more rape-intolerant attitudes and greater empathy levels toward rape survivors than the students under the age of twenty-six. Variables: The dependent variables are attitudes toward rape and empathy toward rape survivors, while the independent variables include: prior history as a rape survivor (knowing a rape survivor or personally being raped), having female siblings, gender, age, and marital status. Findings: 1.

While 2% of the population reported being the survivor of rape by a stranger, 6% indicated they were the survivors of rape by someone known to them. Thirty percent (30%) reported knowing a close friend or family member who had been raped, 74% reporting they had been raped and had also known someone who was raped. In contrast, 55% had never been sexually assaulted or known someone who was assaulted sexually. In regard to safety, 59% reported taking precautions (i.e. self-defense courses, carry mace, or a gun) while 41% did not. 2.

ANOVA showed that prior experience as a rape survivor was significant for rape-intolerant attitudes (F 2,359 = 14.23, p [is less than]. 05), supporting the first hypothesis. Higher rape-intolerant attitudes than for those who had not been raped or had known someone who was a survivor of rape. 3. The ANOVA revealed significance for attitudes and gender, with males reporting a significantly lower mean score than females. Females had more rape-intolerant attitudes than males.

ANOVA have less empathy for rape survivors. Conclusions: Prior victimization as a rape survivor or personally knowing a rape survivor affects rape attitudes and empathy towards rape survivors. Having a female sibling does not affect rape attitudes or empathy towards rape survivors. Gender affects rape attitudes and empathy toward rape survivors.

Age has no effect on rape attitudes or empathy towards rape survivors. Implications: 1. Programs would be more effective if they specifically targeted males and those without prior experience with a rape survivor. 2.

Suggestions for future programs could include using testimonials from rape survivors, editorials, and panel discussions raising student 'personal knowledge' of a rape survivor, which in turn could raise empathy levels. 3. Future rape-prevention programs could address the male population as a target group for awareness of attitudes, rape myths, and stereotypes. 4.

Future research should continue to examine how ethnicity affects attitudes and empathy toward rape. Prevention programs that target the individual perceptions and needs of various ethnic and racial backgrounds could provide a more effective framework for rape awareness. 5. More assessment should be conducted to examine the possible effectiveness of empathy and how it may affect rape awareness programs on college campuses.

Limitations:" A This study is limited to collection of data in the fall semester of 1998. "A The study is limited to self-reported data which may limit internal validity". A The study is subject to possible response bias because subjects may feel they have to respond in a manner that is socially acceptable, particularly on an emotionally charged, 'politically correct' topic such as sexual assault. "A The study analyzes attitudes and does not make an attempt to verify that these self-reported attitudes are consistent with the behavior of subjects". A The study utilized a sample based on convenience, which in turn may have affected both internal and external validity". A Health 2200 is a human sexuality course, which may have resulted in a selection bias since it may have attracted subjects who are permissive in their attitudes toward sexual issues such as rape".

A This study was conducted during a period when public awareness and scrutiny toward sexual harassment may have been heightened by the publicity of President Clinton. Szymanski, Lynda A., (July, 1993) Gender role and attitudes toward rape in male and female college students. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research Methods: Participants were 528 undergraduates at a small, selective liberal arts college in the Northeast. There were 145 male and 374 female subjects; 9 subjects did not indicate their sex. Subjects ranged in age from 17 to 50, with a mean of 20.1 years. All subjects read a story about a man and woman going to see a movie on a date and returning to the man's dormitory room after the movie.

Half of the subjects read a scenario that depicted the woman's date raping her once they returned to his dormitory room. The other subjects read a story identical to the point when the couple returned to his dormitory room. In this second scenario, the man was called out of the room and a stranger came into the room and raped the woman. The stories were as similar as possible in regard to content and the force involved in the rape. After reading the rape scenario, all subjects were asked to use an 11-point Likert scale to rate their feelings about the story through a series of 13 questions. These questions were created by the authors to determine the subjects' attitudes and beliefs about what had happened in the story.

In addition to these questions, the male subjects were asked to rate how likely they would be to behave like the man in the story (who raped the woman) if they were assured that no one would ever find out, and the female subjects were asked how likely they would be to behave in a manner similar to the woman in the story if they were assured that no one would find out. The word rape and related terms were omitted in these questions. Purpose: The present study was designed to further investigate the relationship between gender role and perceptions of rape. This study will also investigate male subjects' expressed likelihood to rape if assured anonymity. Sample: This study examined the relationship between college students' gender roles and attitudes toward rape. Subjects were 145 male and 374 female college students with a mean age of 20.1 years.

The institution has a 12.5% minority population. Hypotheses: Participants classified as masculine according to the BSRI would believe in more rape myths, hold more pro-rape attitudes, and believe in more traditional gender roles than would those who were classified as feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. Variables: The dependant variables are attitudes toward consensual sex and rape, while the dependant variables are prior history as a rape survivor, gender and age. Findings: 1. The effects of gender role and the interaction of gender by gender role were not significant, but there was a significant effect for gender. 2.

In the present study, gender, not gender role, emerged as the significant indicator of attitudes toward rape. As predicted, men had significantly more negative attitudes toward women according to the AWS than did women. 3. Subjects were better able to identify with the man in the acquaintance rape story than in the stranger rape story, but did not differ significantly in their ability to identify with the woman in both stories. Conclusions: This study demonstrated that gender continues to be an important factor in peoples' attitudes toward rape.

On the measures administered in the study men held more pro-rape beliefs and less egalitarian views than did women. Additionally, the interaction of gender and gender role on the AWS suggests that differences exist between the views of men and women within these gender role categorizations. Feminine and androgynous men appear to be more similar to women in their attitudes toward women than do masculine and undifferentiated men. Both men and women of all gender classifications held stereotypical views of stranger and acquaintance rapes.

Acquaintance rapes are perceived as less severe, less criminal, and more the fault of the victim than are stranger rapes. Implications: No specific implications were stated by the author. Limitations: One problem with the present study is the questionnaire that assessed subjects' attitudes about the rape scenario. The items from this questionnaire were based on a description of the Rape Responsibility Questionnaire (Deitz et al., 1984).

Unfortunately, the authors were unable to obtain a copy of the questionnaire from the authors and therefore designed one based on the limited information in the Deitz et al. (1984) study. The questionnaire in the present study did not yield usable factors when factor analyzed. Hannon, Roseann (Dec. 1995) Dating characteristics leading to unwanted vs. wanted sexual behavior.

Sex Roles: A Journal of Research Method: Questionnaires were administered in classroom settings during regular class meetings. Participants were treated in accordance with American Psychological Association guidelines for research with human participants, and were given no special inducement to participate in the study and no penalty for refusing to participate. After all participants had completed the questionnaire, they were told that sexual assault is never justified, that sexual assault can occur in a multitude of situations, and that help is available for sexual assault survivors by calling a local crisis line for which the number was provided. Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to replicate and extend Muehlenhard and Linton's (1987) study by collecting descriptive data about sexual behaviors during recent dates, unwanted sex dates, and wanted sex dates. A second purpose was investigate ethnic differences in a diverse sample of students from community colleges in California. Sample: Participants were 267 women (M age = 20.4) and 148 men (M age = 20.5) enrolled in undergraduate social / behavioral science and humanities courses at five 2-year public colleges in Northern California (the authors were not instructors at any of the colleges where data were collected).

All students were single and had never been married. Ninety-six percent indicated that they were attracted to people of the opposite sex (those indicating attraction to the same sex or to both sexes were excluded from the data ana lysis). Ethnic backgrounds included 53.3% European American, 32.1% Latin American, 7.8% African American, 9.9% Asian American / Pacific Islander, and 5.9% other. Most participants appeared to be from lower to middle class backgrounds, but this information was not specifically measured.

Hypotheses: The author stated no specific hypothesis. Variables: The dependant variables are clothing worn by dates and expenditures of the date, while the independent variables are age, race, and dating experiences. Findings: 1. Sexual behavior unwanted by the female was reported to have occurred at some previous time in their lives by 63.6% of the women and 34.5% of the men (58.1% of women and 31.8% of men during high school, and 38.9% of women and 23.0% of men during college). 2. Date rape (sexual intercourse against the woman's will) was reported on recent dates by 1.6% of the women and none of the men (not reported by Muehlenhard and Linton).

3. Women's reports of behaviors willingly engaged in during unwanted sex dates are generally lower than men's. 4. Dates involving no expenses may be less likely to be filled with planned activities, increasing the opportunity for sexual activity of either type to occur. Conclusions: Lifetime incidence of wanted sexual behavior was in excess of 80% for both women and men, and incidence of willingly engaging in sexual behavior during their most recent date was also in excess of 80% for both women and men. Recent research on dating has focused so heavily on unwanted and aggressive sexual experiences that wanted sexual activity has been largely ignored.

Findings indicate that most sexual activity on dates is wanted by both partners. Implications: Future studies investigating and comparing characteristics of wanted and unwanted sex dates would help us more fully understand the characteristics leading to different types of sexual behavior. This information could be used to develop better prevention programs for unwanted sex and better education programs for wanted sex. Future studies should also strive to increase our knowledge of similarities and differences between ethnic groups.

Limitations: 1. The data analysis was somewhat awkward because one of the main purposes was to compare the findings on unwanted sex dates versus recent dates with those of Muehlenhard and Linton (1987). 2. The sample of men was smaller than that of women due to obtaining participants primarily from social science courses. 3. The questionnaire asked for information about recent, unwanted sex, and wanted sex dates in the same order for all participants so that order effects, if any, could not be analyzed.

Kop per, Beverly A. (Jan. 1996) Gender, gender identity, rape myth acceptance, and time of initial resistance on the perception of acquaintance rape blame and avoid ability. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research. Methods: After giving informed consent, participants, in groups of approximately 25, read one of two acquaintance rape scenarios, varying on timing of resistance. Then, each participant completed the rape scenario questions, Bem Sex-Role Inventory (Bem, 1974), revised Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (Burt, 1980), and the demographic questionnaire. Purpose: A major purpose of the present study was to further investigate the role of gender in perceptions of blame and avoid ability of an acquaintance rape. Another major purpose of this study was to investigate the role of gender role identity in perceptions of blame and avoid ability following an acquaintance rape utilizing the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI, Bem, 1974).

Sample: Participants were 534 undergraduate students (355 women and 179 men), enrolled in introductory psychology courses at a large midwestern university. Participants ranged in age from 16 to 39 years; however, 97% of the sample was younger than 25 years of age. Of the participants, approximately 94% were White, 2% were African American or Asian, 1% were Hispanic, and 1% were of other races. The majority (94%) of participants had never married. Hypotheses: Females attribute less responsibility to a rape victim than males. Variables: The central dependent variable in this analyses addresses are the rape scenario questions.

Two independent variables are of central importance in this analyses: respondent gender and exposure to sexual assault. Findings: 1. When women scored low in rape myth acceptance and time of initial resistance occurred early in the encounter, they attributed significantly less blame for the assault to the victim and the situation, and more blame to the perpetrator. 2. Androgynous women, more than any other gender role type, were least likely to believe the assault could have been avoided when time of initial resistance occurred early in the encounter and most likely to believe the assault could have been avoided when the time of initial resistance occurred later in the encounter. 3.

When men scored low in rape myth acceptance and time of initial resistance occurred early in the encounter, they attributed significantly less blame for the assault to the victim and the situation, more blame to the perpetrator, and were less likely to believe the sexual assault could have been avoided. Conclusions: As hypothesized, when time of initial resistance occurred early in the encounter, men and women attributed significantly less blame to the victim and situation, more blame to the perpetrator, and were more likely to believe the sexual assault could not have been avoided. This finding may help explain the extremely low report rate for acquaintance rape. In an acquaintance rape situation, the victim knows her attacker, possibly quite well. This knowledge may in fact encourage her, and those around her, to attribute more blame to the victim, especially if she fails to resist immediately. Even if she does resist early in the encounter, she may still be plagued by significant rape myths, e. g., a woman who goes to a man's residence on the first date implies that she is willing to have sex, healthy women can resist a rapist if they really want to, etc.

Implications: Further research regarding the relationship of gender and gender role identity and attitudes toward sexual assault needs to be conducted utilizing a variety of assessment instruments. Likewise, expanding this study's participants beyond the college student population is also recommended. Although the of this study's results beyond the college student population is limited, the results are of interest in further exploring the critical variables involved in attitudes toward acquaintance rape. Limitations: No limitations were stated by the author. Struck man-Johnson, Cindy (Sept.

1993) College men's and women's reactions to hypothetical sexual touch varied by initiator gender and coercion level. Methods: Four versions of the questionnaire were created by varying the vignette on the first page to have either a male initiator (gentle or forceful touch) or a female initiator (gentle or forceful touch). All other items in the instrument were identical and appeared in the same order. The questionnaire versions were sequentially ordered in stacks so that they could be distributed or self-selected in a random order. Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to compare heterosexual college men's and women's anticipated reactions to the same coercive sexual act initiated by either a male or female acquaintance. A second purpose of the study was to investigate the degree to which gender role and sexual beliefs mediate the perceived harmfulness of these interactions.

For example, do men's and women's beliefs about appropriate male and female sexual standards influence their reactions to opposite-gender coercion? Are men's and women's responses to same-gender coercion influenced by feelings of anti homosexuality more so than gender role beliefs? Sample: The original subject pool consisted of 162 male and 239 female students taking classes at a public midwestern university in the spring semester of 1991. The campus population of 6000 students was predominantly middle class and ethnically homogeneous -- 95% Caucasian, 3% Native American, and 2% from other ethnic groups. Excluded from the sample were 13 homosexual and bisexual students, 14 subjects over age 35, and 6 subjects who failed to complete numerous items. In order to have an equal number of men and women in the cells, an additional 61 women were excluded by a computer-generated random selection program.

The final sample consisted of 152 men (M age = 21.2) and 152 women (M age = 21.4). Hypotheses: 1. The primary hypothesis was that for conditions of gentle and forceful touch, women would view a man's sexual touch as having a high negative effect, whereas men would view a woman's touch as having a relatively lower negative effect. 2. It was hypothesized that men would view a woman's gentle touch as having a less negative effect than a woman's forceful touch.

3. It was predicted that women would view a man's gentle touch as having a less negative effect than a man's forceful touch. 4. It was predicted that men and women would view the forceful touch by a same-gender person as having an equally high negative effect. 5. It was expected that men would view gentle and forceful touch from another man as having an equally high negative effect.

6. The final prediction was that women would view a gentle touch by another woman as having a less negative effect than a forceful female touch. Variables: The dependent measure was subjects' ratings of the anticipated negative effect of the touch. The independent variables include age, gender, race, and sexual orientation. Findings: 1. It was found that women anticipated a strong negative reaction to a man's uninvited sexual touch, particularly in the forceful condition.

2. Women's feelings of physical violation and fear of physical harm were found to be more salient than any romantic response to the situations, even in the case of a gentle touch. 3. Although men viewed the forceful touch by a man as extremely forceful, the identical act committed by a woman was perceived as only moderately forceful.

4. The results indicate that heterosexual college men and women anticipate having a strong negative reaction to uninvited sexual touch from same-gender persons, whether it occurs in a gentle or forceful manner. 5. The study revealed an unusual commonality between men and women regarding coercive sexuality: both men and women viewed a coercive male touch as a physically violating, fear-provoking event.

Conclusions: The study makes a unique contribution to the literature in that it assessed men's, as well as women's, perceived reactions to identical acts of coercive sexual touch. Most prior research in this area has focused on women's evaluations of men's actions. The study is also among the first to examine the cognitive and situational variables that may predict men's reactions to coercive touch. Finally, the study adds to the nascent literature on coercive sexual relationships between heterosexuals and homosexuals. Implications: In future research, it is recommended more exploration of the parameters of men's reactions to female-initiated coercion. A major question raised by this study is how forceful does a situation have to be before men respond negatively to female sexual coercion.

This could be answered in a study in which the vignettes are varied by high levels of force. It is speculated that men's responses would also be influenced by sexual outcome of the situation (e. g., oral sex or intercourse) and physical appearance of the initiator (e. g., attractive or unattractive). Because the present study indicated that both men and women anticipate high psychological harm from a same-gender advance, the dynamics of these interactions should also be investigated by further vignette research. Limitations: The major limitation of the present study is that it assessed reactions to hypothetical coercion situations, not actual incidents. Whether victims' reactions to actual coercion will parallel findings of this study can only be determined by more research. However, the present study may serve as a source of ideas, variables and proposed relationships for future investigations.