Recorded Crime As Victim Surveys example essay topic

Lectures: 17.04. 03 Lecture One Theoretical perspectives: early beginnings to present day Lecture Two Feminist challenges to youth and trouble: focus on teenage pregnancy and crime The academic literature on 'delinquent youth' arises in part from official concern over young people's activities outside direct adult supervision by parents, teachers or employers. Griffin, C. (1993) Representations of Youth: The Study of Adolescence in Britain and America, Cambridge: Polity Press. and: A set of concerns about the activities of young people and their supervision by institutions or individuals representing the social order. Johnston, L. (1993: 96) The Modern Girl: Girlhood and Growing Up, Sydney: Allen & Unwin Youth and trouble: theoretical perspectives Biological determinism Psychological theories Sociological theories Blumer's symbolic interaction ism rests on three premises: humans act towards things on the basis of meanings that the things have for them the meaning of things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with one's fellows these meanings are handled in and modified through an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he encounters. Hester & Eglin, 1992. In relation to criminal behaviour, symbolic concentrate on processes of social interaction in which: certain behaviour is prohibited by law, i.e. the process of crime definition through legislation certain acts and persons become subject to law enforcement, i.e. the process of crime selection by the police certain acts and persons become fitted with the label 'criminal' i.e. the process of crime interpretation by the courts criminal identity is developed, maintained and transformed (e.g. notion of careers).

Labelling theorists interpret deviance not as a set of characteristics of individuals or groups, but as a process of interaction between deviants and non-deviants. Giddens, 1997: 178 Deviance is not the quality of the act a person commits but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an offender. The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied; deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label. Becker, 1963: 9 Critique of labelling theory Some acts are intrinsically wrong, such as murder. There are differences e.g. people from a deprived background may shoplift more than rich people; although deviant behaviour may increase after conviction, there may be other prior explanations for this. Labelling theory did not fully explain how what came to be seen as deviant was defined - the questions whose definitions, whose interests and why were not explored.

Mainstream vs. radical The mainstream perspective is positivist, empiricist and conservative, presenting itself as an apolitical and objective project. It is characterized by the tendency to investigate young people as both the source and the victims of a series of 'social problems', adopting the victim-blaming thesis in the search for the cause (s) of specific phenomena. The radical perspective has been more likely to adopt structuralist and post-structuralist analyses, and to de-construct the association between young people and 'social problems', asking different questions and viewing research as part of a consciously political project Outline Feminist challenge to the sociology of youth Teenage pregnancy: a social problem or not? Crime and invisible girls While we were doing the research... I was asked hundreds of times what my research was about (as researchers usually are).

Almost invariably the response to my explanation was in the nature of 'How awful!' 'Poor / Silly girls!' Or 'I bet you find some problems there!' As the research neared its end I began to reply that actually te women and children were mostly doing fine, that lack of money was their major problem and that given their educational and family background it did not appear that their financial circumstances would necessarily have improved if they had deferred motherhood beyond their teenage years. Many people either simply did not believe me or added 'Yes, but... ' caveats to my account. Other people were astonished that the stories 'young mothers' might have to tell would not simply be full of doom and gloom... Phoenix, A. (1991: 1) Young Mothers, Cambridge: Polity Press. Reasons Phoenix asserts that there is a perception that young motherhood and poor outcomes for the child are linked: Moral.

Ambiguity of adolescents's tat us. Perceived to be most common among groups which are seen to be problematic. Reflects reality i.e. outcomes are poor (Phoenix argues this is not the case). Contribution of feminist critiques Made girls and women visible. Challenged theories which do not take gender into account.

Pointed out the continuity between the pressure to conformity by the CJS and by society more generally. Looked at whether women and men are treated in the same way by law enforcement agencies e.g. police. Provided qualitative data about female crime. Provided insights about girls and women as victims of crime. There was in any case a further difficulty since, given women's low and spectacular crime rates, they were harder to find and study because they were so rare.

Further, it seems clear that female offenders fear the stigma and the loss of reputation associated with their offences more than their male counterparts (Heidensohn, 1985) and this makes them even more elusive as subjects. Heidensohn, 1989: 91 The impact of the feminist critique the detailed and lengthy statistical analysis of sex crime ratios and their significance; (whether it's gone up and changed type e.g. Adler, 1975) the 'cosmetic touches' approach in which token references to gender are applied to create a more appropriate impression; some examples of at least partial rethinking (main contribution is victim ology) Heidensohn, 1989: 94 Concern with gender is thus slowly sleeping rather then flowing into the mainstream of the study of crime For every 100 people aged under 21 in 1994, there were 3.3 convictions and cautions for indictable offences, compared with a rate of around 0.8 per 100 for adults. The peak age for committing a detected offence was 18 for boys and 14 for girls in 1994. But little of this was serious crime, especially for offenders under 18, whose commonest detected crime is shoplifting. The vast majority of really serious crime is committed by adults. Cava dino and Dinan, 1997: 249 According to the Audit Commission the trend suggests there has not been a recent decline in youth offending; the apparent fall is due to four factors: Demographic changes The reclassification by the Criminal Justice Act 1988 of three types of offences (common assault, taking a motor vehicle without consent and criminal damage over lb 400).

A fall in the proportion of people found guilty in court. A greater use of warnings for some offenders Audit Commission, 1996: 11 Young people and crime Age of criminal responsibility - UK is low compared with other countries Status offences, by definition, apply only to young people Delinquency / anti -social behaviour is included in considerations about young people and crime Table 2: The age of criminal responsibility in Europe, 1995 Country Age Belgium 18 Luxembourg 18 Andorra 16 Poland 16 Portugal 16 Spain 16 Czech Republic 15 Denmark 15 Estonia 15 Finland 15 Iceland 15 Norway 15 Slovakia 15 Sweden 15 Austria 14 Bulgaria 14 Germany 14 Hungary 14 Italy 14 Latvia 14 Lithuania 14 Slovenia 14 France 13 Greece 12 Netherlands 12 San Marino 12 Turkey 12 England 10 Wales 10 Malta 9 Scotland 8 Northern Ireland 8 Cyprus 7 Ireland 7 Liechtenstein 7 Switzerland 7 (Source: Council of Europe in Howard League Report, 1995: 14) Three key sources of 'facts' about crime Official statistics Victim surveys Self-report Official crime statistics Giddens, 1997: 181. Limitations of official statistics Vastly underestimate crime Include only figures recorded by the police - not all crimes are recorded Include only figures recorded by the police - not all crimes are reported. Even when a crime is recorded, the Crown Prosecution Service may not prosecute In different areas offences are categorized differently An apparent increase in crime statistics may reflect an increase in rates of reporting crimes There is not a necessary correlation between the number of crimes committed and the number of known offenders Crime statistics, like all statistics, can be manipulated Benefits of official statistics Some are more reliable than others e.g. rates of homicide. They 'may at least reveal the pattern of dispersal of crimes... may provide helpful information about the geographical and social spread of crime' (Downes & Rock, 1998: 52).

They provide comparisons across countries of e.g. low rate of delinquency in Japan. Benefits of victim surveys Give information about crimes that were experienced but were not reported. Provide a useful corrective to 'political' interpretations of rises and falls in recorded crime, as victim surveys are often less dramatic than these. Provide a source of comparison with police generated statistics. Act as a critique of reported crime. Limitations of victim surveys Do not include victimless crimes e.g. vandalism of public property.

Do not include behaviour's that victims do not perceive as crimes e.g. familial abuse. Do not include behaviour's that victims do not know about e.g. employers may not be aware that employees have been stealing from work. Do not include offences considered too small to report e.g. minor acts of vandalism. Do not know from these surveys the sex of the person committing the crime, as many crimes have no witness. Do not include crimes against institutions. Do not include certain populations e.g. those imprisoned, institutionalized, in transit or homeless.

Limitations of self-report surveys Respondents may exaggerate offences. Respondents may not admit to offences. Respondents may include minor delinquent acts that would not be pursued by the police. Surveys are often administered in schools, so they miss truants. Surveys are very often conducted with schoolchildren or students and less often with adults. Surveys often include the more visible offences, but leave out e.g. white collar crime.

Self-report surveys are very often conducted with only male participants. Benefits of self-report surveys Higher crime rate is revealed. Reveal certain trends that are missed in official statistics e.g. narrowing of the sex differences. If followed up with interviews inconsistencies can be explored. They can be relatively easy to conduct Three responses to young people in the 1980's and 1990's Imprisonment Electronic tagging Curfews Rise in incarceration of young people in the 1990's 1992-1994: no. of young people 15-21 yr. olds in prison increased from 6783 to 8610.1990-1994: no. of 15 yr. old females in prison increased from 11 to 31.1990-1994: no. of 15 yr. old males receiving custodial sentences increased from 436 to 709. Aside from Turkey, a higher proportion of young people in England and Wales receive custodial sentences than in any other European country.

Howard League, 1995 In the US, 77 per cent of cities with over 200,000 people have curfews Types of responses to 'curfew violators' in the US Pick the young person up and take them to a detention centre Take the young person home Issue them with a ticket Guidance for Child Curfew Schemes, 20012.1. What is a local child curfew scheme designed to do? It has a dual purpose It aims to protect the local community from the alarm and distress caused by groups of young people involved in anti-social behaviour at night. It also aims to protect children and young people from risks of being unaccompanied on the streets late at night - risks of older peers encouraging them into criminal activities, or from adults such as pimps or drug dealers. Three justifications for curfews 1. To protect children from being victimized 2.

To reduce crime 3. To help parents in supervising their children Jeffs and Smith, 1996, (cited in Hill & Tisdall, 1997: 191) Hill and Tisdall's response to three justifications for curfews Should a potential victim's freedom be restricted rather than that of the perpetrator? Should anyone's freedom be restricted on the basis that they might offend? If curfews aim to reduce crime they are unfairly targeted, given that males aged 15-25 are statistically the most likely to offend. If parents have problems supervising their children, this is unlikely to improve if the child is at home with nothing to do - curfews should at least be accompanied by recreational activities. Hill & Tisdall, 1997: 191 There is remarkably little empirical research on the impact of curfews on either juvenile crime or the overall crime rate; thus it is unclear how effective they are at reducing crime.

Hemmers & Bennett (1999: 102) Hamilton Child Safety Initiative In the first 6 months, 200 children were removed from the streets. Only four were charged with a criminal offence. 87% of the parents of the children returned home said they approved of action of police. 96% of traders wished the initiative to continue.

Crime and disorder complaints fell by 23% and 22% respectively. Crimes particularly associated with juveniles - theft and vandalism - fell by 49%. In one area of H. youth crime fell by 40%. 78% of 1,200 schoolchildren from the Hamilton area contacted believed the objectives and initiative were sound. A control study showed no obvious displacement of youth crime. The Local Child Curfews Guidance Document Working Draft (2001: 6) Suggestions for reducing crime made by Article 12 (group of Scottish young people) More youth groups and clubs More youth groups at the weekend Lower age limits for entry to pubs Lower age limits for entry to other leisure pursuits An end to laws on loitering, so that young people cease to get into trouble for petty offences Web: http: / web of parenting orders as a solution to young people and crime Why would this apply more to boys than girls?

Would programmes be effective? (e.g. history of parental crime will not change, but other aspects might) Emphasis on psychological factors (e.g. relationship between young person and parents) to the exclusion of structural factors (e.g. poverty). Ignores what we know of the strength of peer influence. European Convention on Human Rights Article 5: Right to liberty and security Article 8: Right to respect for private and family life Article 11: Freedom of assembly and association Web: web have expressed concerns in respect of the previous legislation as to the compatibility of any such order with the Human Rights Act, and in particular Articles 5 and 8 of the Convention. We consider in particular that these provisions are unlikely to comply with Article 8, the right to respect for private and family life, and that they are too widely drawn to be proportionate or necessary in a democratic society. Liberty, The National Council for Civil Liberties, 2001: web (not on reading list) It registers an increase in breadth and depth of the surveillance of childhood, or more correctly, particular types of childhood.

It reflects the extension of a pseudo-parental responsibility to the community as a whole outwith the family. It works to deny children's autonomy and denies their right to be responsible and govern their own behaviour.