Statistics Of Crime And Criminals example essay topic

Introduction: Crime has become part of most peoples' life in one form or another. This essay will define crime from many perspectives, as the many and varied theories of delinquency create much of the confusion concerning the causes of crime (Shoemaker 2000). The idea that criminal behaviour is determined, or caused, by something, leads to the legal, social, and cultural factors that influence the decision to label some behaviour's as criminal while others or not. Rights, choices and responsibility of individuals and society will also be covered as they may lead to the discussions people make concerning their behaviours. (Shoemaker 2000). Drugs will be used as an example of criminal behaviours throughout the essay.

Further, this essay will look at how criminal statistics are used to establish laws. (Sutherland 1940, 1947). Finally, this essay will conclude by suggesting that Health Services and interventions have been planned with little reference to the needs of those most concerned, and this obscures the real needs. Crime - definitions and theories. Working definitions of crime are context and historically specific.

Drug use may be differentially evaluated as 'serious' crime depending on the geographic location and historical period, the political circumstances, and the prevailing legal structures. For example substances such as cocaine, marijuana, heroin and methamphetamine were not illegal in the United States prior to the 20th century, but today they attract some of the most severe penalties in the criminal code. Therefore, crime is what the law says is criminal and is defined by the laws of a particular state. (Mosher el at 2002, Shoemaker 2000). Strain theories (Bernard 1987, Durkheim 1933, Merton 1938, Miller 1975, Cohen & Short 1958, Cloward & Onlin 1960, Cohen 1955, Kluegel & smith 1986) regard antisocial behaviours as the frustrations of the lower class when they find themselves unable to achieve the material success expected of middle-class. This frustration and inability to meet such expectations makes some participate in acts of delinquency, and crime as another means of acquiring money, material items and prestige socially.

(Flowers 1986, Hawkins 1996, Rowe 1996, Merton 1957, Quinney 1980). For example, Renton (Welsh - Trainspotting 1996) came from a nuclear family that appeared to be a supportive towards him. But Renton felt powerless to change his circumstances (for work, money, material possessions), he blamed England for this problem, as them had control over Scotland. So, Renton turned his back on conventional goals and the structured means for achieving them, drifting instead into as escapist lifestyle of drug addiction. Therefore greater emphasis should be placed on identifying the needs of those concerned, rather than the crime. (Marriot Report 1971).

Legal, social, and cultural factors that influence the decision to criminalize or not criminalize unwanted behaviours. Legal definition from the 'social harm' concept, defines a crime as and action (or for that matter, inaction) that causes some type of harm. (Shoemaker 2000). But the 'criminal labelling approach is crime is defined by society, and crime exists when a social response to an act or activity brands that activity as criminal. (Shoemaker 2000). Also from the 'human right perspective' defines crime as any act that violates human rights, regardless of whether a particular state authority or jurisdiction deems the act a crime.

Yet another approach 'human diversity approach', defines crime as deviance, but also defines deviance as a normal response to oppressive or inherently unequal circumstances. That is, the dominant group in a society attempts to restrict human diversity of language, experience, or culture in order to retain its dominance. This restriction is achieved by classifying certain manifestations of diversity as deviance and further deeming deviance as criminal. (Shoemaker 2000). Some behaviour's are labelled as criminal while others are not. For the Marxist (1848), the most serious crimes are often those least recognized by capitalist criminal codes, known as the secret deviant (Becker 1973, Hirschi 1980).

These are the crimes of the powerful, the owners of the means of production, and are driven by economic motives. Economic crimes include exploitation of labour, destruction of the natural environment for profit, fraud perpetration on consumers, price gouging, price fixing, unfair competition and so on. All are motivated by some form of individual (or corporate) greed, a desire to augment one's wealth. Therefore, criminal laws primarily serve the interests of the ruling class who use the laws to exploit, control, and victimize the lower and working classes in order to maintain the economic and political system of capitalism. (Flowers 1988, 1990).

Rights, choices and responsibility. Howard (2002) argued that our social status affects both self-appraisal and perceptions of life's opportunities or constraints. Social Control Theories (Frazier 1976, Hirschi 1983, Linden and Hacker 1973, Matza And Sykes 1961), argue that all individuals have the potential and opportunities to perpetrate delinquent or criminal offences, but most refrain from such because of fear and social constraints. Social disorganisation perspectives relate to the inability of social institutions and communities to adequately socialize and control its youth. (Bur sik & Grasmick 1996). Durkheim claimed states make laws about behaviours on which there is a consensus of the society at large, that laws are in everyone's interest.

He further stated that laws bind people together, social solidarity. Hall & Jefferson (1976) views delinquency and rebellion as a form of 'resistance' to the capitalist system, and to dominant social values. Delinquency was considered a creative response to material inequality, a manifestation of incipient class awareness. Youth in particular are at risk because they have limited economic opportunities, which can block their status aspirations, they may turn to drugs as a way copying, enhancing self-esteem, power and control.

(Merton 1938, Davis 1999, Reckless 1961). Therefore, drugs may be the outcome (form of resistance) of the inability of organizations, groups, or individuals in a community or neighbourhood to solve common problems like unemployment, globalisation, inequality and so on. Rational choices are based on the principle of self-interest (Cornish & Clarke 1986: 1). Although the legal system is based on the notion of free will and individual responsibility, it has been recognized for some time that not all individuals have the same ability to reason and weigh the outcome of their behaviour. (Shoemaker 2000). According to Beccaria (1963) people do what they do because they derive pleasure from their acts, and they voluntarily choose to commit them.

Social obligations are to provide opportunities for meaningful work, schooling and training to all members of society. Society also expects people to exhibit certain behaviours, and if they do not they are not meeting certain obligations and responsibilities. (Bessant and Watts 2002). Society is full of competing social groups who have differing access to life chances or social rewards. Factors such as class, gender, race, ethnicity and age affect this access. This leads to differential access to scare resources and social rewards then, unevenly distributed social stratification's and social inequality occurs.

Power is maintained through the ability to dominate groups; the ability to legitimize 'acceptable' ideas actually reinforces their privileged positions. (Connell el at 1982). From this point of view, deviance is not a quality; of the act the person commits, but rather a consequences of the application by others of rules and sanctions of the offenders'. "In other words if someone defines you as deviant, and they have the power to make the definition apply, then you are likely to be treated as deviant" (Bessant & Watts 2002).

Therefore, drug taking could be motivated by the same principle as noncriminal behaviour, namely, the gratification of pleasure and the avoidance of pain because of the differential access to scare resources and social rewards. It may be your choice but how much choice do you have if labelled. (Bessant & Watts 2002, p 366). The labelling theorists see crime not as an objective, but as a social process. That is the outcome of specific kinds of human interaction. 'Crime' is the label that the social mainstream, the relatively elite and powerful apply to behaviour it deems deviant or threatening.

Crime is not an absolute objective, but a perception of some type of behaviour. Crime is what the criminal justice system says it is. That is the criminal justice system is operated and controlled by the segment of society that holds all the power. According to the theory, labelling does not merely designate crime it actually creates it (Reckless 1961).

Labelling alters the self-image of the offender. Labelled a criminal the offender tends to seek the company of others similarly labelled, criminal behaviour is reinforced and a criminal subculture develops. These concepts show the important of social interactions in the development of self-feelings and social identities. (Cooley 1964, Meade 1974) Criminal data and statistics. Although official data and other sources were commonly used by journalists, criminologists and social scientists to comment on crime trends and the cause of crime. Beattie (1941) noted that police statistics were manipulated for political purposes and questionable in their validity.

Sutherland (1940) claimed that the statistics of crime and criminals are known as the most unreliable and difficult of all statistics. This was because the laws that define crime change, the number of crimes actually committed cannot possibly be enumerated, and crime statistics needed to be calculated in proportion to the population. (Sutherland 1947). Further, explanations of crime were invalid because the official statistics did not include "white collar criminals" (p 4), and claimed that individuals in all social classes also committed crime.

"White collar crimes are defined as a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status. (Sutherland 1940). Conclusion. Crime is part of most people's life today in one form or another, but it is the legal, social, and cultural factors that influence law thus labelling which are criminal and which or not. Individuals may appear to have rights, choices and responsibilities but only when it does not affect the segment of society that holds all the power. Criminal data and statistics should include all crime that is "white collar crime", and not just the crimes considered deviant by those with power.

Drugs may be considered a criminal behaviour, but health services and interventions have been planned with little reference to the needs of those most concerned, and this obscures the real needs. Interventions have to attack the meanings invested in such activities, instead of just labelling the outcomes as criminal behaviours. (Coleman & Hendry 1999).

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