The Ifugao A Mountain People Of The Philippines example essay topic

The Gran Cordillera Central of Northern Luzon is a jumbled mass of lofty peaks and plummeting ravines, of small fecund valleys cleaved by rained, boulder-strewn rivers, and of silent, mist-shrouded, moss-veiled forests wherein orchids in their deathlike beauty unfold like torpid butterflies. Within the rugged confines of this natural bastion live the Ifugao, an independent and conservative people who have for over three hundred years stubbornly resisted the cross and sword of the proselytizing Spanish, the cultural arrogance and monetary clout of American administration and the continuous drive by the independent government of the Philippines toward westernization and acculturation. Progress and modernization may be the order of the day in the capital city of Manila (a harrowing eight hours by road to the south) but the majority of the Ifugao retain their identity and live their lives in accordance with the beliefs and mores of their sacred ancestors. The Republic of the Philippines is an archipelago of some 7,000 islands that range from tiny low-lying sand-ringed coral atolls to the large main islands which are mountainous, heavily wooded and lushly fertile. The first people to arrive in these islands approximately 100,000 years ago were primitive hunters and gatherers who lived off the land's basic resources. Many thousands of years later (around 9000 BC), diverse groups from insular and mainland Asia arrived with advanced agricultural skills and a sophisticated social structure.

From this complex intermingling of peoples and cultures the infrastructure of a civilization was created and the Philippines as an entity was born. When the explorer Magellan discovered the Philippines in 1521 he encountered along the coastal littoral a militant, predominately Islamic people with extensive trading and diplomatic ties to Indonesia, China, Indochina and Thailand. In 1565 the Spanish returned to the archipelago and established their first permanent settlement on the island of Cebu. From this base they rapidly gained control of the Philippine coastline and by the end of the 16th century had turned their attention to subduing the wild tribes of the interior. In this endeavor the Spanish were only marginally successful; conservative tribal groups continued to flourish in the craggy interiors of Luzon and Mindanao and to a lesser degree in the islands of Mindoro, Palawan and Negros. Just as the Spanish never relented in their efforts to subdue and convert the Ifugao, either did the Ifugao yield in their struggle to retain their social and spiritual independence.

Although the Ifugao are only one of many different conservative tribal groups living in Luzon's Central Cordillera, they are notably intransigent, having caused Fr. Juan Villa verde, a 19th-century Spanish priest, to write, "The Ifugao is, and believes himself, an absolute king, avenging with his ever-ready lance the smallest offense not only against his person, but also against his house and his estate. They hate like death the least domination on the part of strangers". Despite the ongoing effort by both church and government to assimilate and convert the Ifugao, they have remained remarkably unchanged. The Ifugao, who number approximately 120,000, live in widely scattered groups over some 750 square miles of rugged, precipitous terrain where heavy rainstorms are frequently followed by slides, flash floods and washouts. They are an agrarian people deeply involved with the growing of rice, the ritual and magic which surrounds it, and in maintaining the ways of the revered ancestors.

In farming their unstable and harsh country, the Ifugao have acquired a thorough familiarity with local drainage patterns. Their understanding of hydraulic technology, combined with excellent stone masonry skills and the simplest of hand tools, have enabled them to create the world's most extraordinary system of rice terracing. Ifugao rice terraces are sturdy stone walls which can reach as high as 50 feet, and are constructed along the land's natural contours. When finished, the terraces are back filled and another wall at a slightly higher elevation is constructed. By repeating this process from valley floor to mountain peak, the Ifugao are able to construct their rice fields on the steepest of slopes. But sites are selected carefully, because the terraces require an elevated water source to flood the fields during the growing season.

An elevated water source is also of great assistance during initial construction. The dammed water can be released to assist in moving the many tons of boulders, stones and earth required in a new terrace. Irrigation water is frequently brought from great distances by ingenious stone-lined channels and hollow log or bamboo aqueducts that cross canyons and chasms and snake around the sides of mountains. Rice to the Ifugao is something more than basic sustenance. Over countless generations they have created a balanced, stable society based on rice as a medium of exchange, power and subsistence. Ifugao social status is inexorably linked to the amount of rice harvested, terraces built and all-round good management and business acumen.

Although the mountains yield frugally at the cost of much labor, the production of rice and the building of thousands of miles of stone terracing and irrigation systems are regarded by the Ifugao as a physical manifestation of ritual energy and group cohesiveness. With the help of the ancestors and other spiritual beings (called up on a complex cycle of agricultural rituals and ceremonies), the Ifugao have transformed high mountains and deep ravines into vertical, verdant fields that have allowed them to prosper and remain independent of the vagaries of national politics. Bound strongly by family ties and the need to be near their fields, the Ifugao live in small, loosely confederated settlements of identical thatched roofed houses. Many years ago, fierce rivalry and constant inter-valley feuding caused villages to be bunched in relatively inaccessible but easily defended locations, but now in more tranquil times, villages are found perched on top of prominent peaks, carefully wedged into steep mountainsides or clustered in valleys.

Small, but well constructed, Ifugao houses are appropriate for a people close to the land and to each other. Insofar that the greater part of Ifugao life takes place outdoors, little more is required than storage for a few possessions, a place to sleep, and a shelter in which to rest and cook during inclement weather. In house building, as with most other aspects of traditional Ifugao life, form is dictated by custom and convention. Typically the Ifugao house sits elevated on four sturdy posts, a windowless structure built of hand-hewn native timbers expertly fastened with mortised joints and tenons. Inside there is an open earth and stone fireplace for cooking, and floor mats for sleeping and sitting. Family possessions -- baskets, bowls, clothing, skulls (human and animal), and magic paraphernalia -- are hung from walls or stacked on elaborately carved shelves.

Wood ceilings are low, to allow for the storage of rice overhead; underneath the house is a place to sit and gossip and work on household tasks. Although Ifugao houses vary little from this basic configuration, houses of the nobility often feature distinctive architectural refinements such as massive Ha gabi lounging benches, decorated attic beams, king posts and doorjambs carved with human effigies, and ornate exterior friezes portraying pigs, carabao and other animals. Separate rice granaries which are smaller, but otherwise of the same basic design and construction of houses, are also evidence of high status within the community, earned by ambitious and industrious individuals. Click for larger version of photo In traditional Ifugao society upward mobility is founded on ownership and effective management of extensive wet rice terracing, astute borrowing and lending and the support of the gods elicited in magical-religious ceremonies.

The commercial instincts of the Ifugao are well developed and there is considerable bartering, exchange and manipulation of assets. Progression from the lower to the upper strata of society is accomplished through the accumulation of wealth, marked by a series of increasingly lavish rituals, feasts, sacrifices and commissioning of artifacts corresponding to the position sought or gained. Although this pursuit is an extremely costly undertaking that requires the support of kith and kin, enormous prestige and privileges are gained, including the right to wear certain ornaments and dress, to display elaborate house emblems and architectural refinements, and be buried in a particular style of coffin. In earlier times, martial prowess and headhunting skills were also important factors in achieving upward mobility; nowadays, these particular skills are less important.

Socially the ritual process of advancement helps to ensure the distribution of wealth (as represented by rice and animals), provides an outlet for the energetic and ambitious, and encourages the continuous building of terraces and the production of rice. By following this sytem wealth is not accumulated to excess but is restored to the community in return for privileges and honor. Competition is fierce among the aspirants as each struggles to demonstrate their munificence to the people, while with largesse and rituals they seek the support of powerful spiritual beings. Religious rites accompany every significant phase of Ifugao life and provide a means by which the unknown or unexplained can be approached and understood. Ifugao religion is a vastly complex structure based on ancestor worship, animism and magical power. The Ifugao pantheon consists of innumerable spiritual entities that represent natural elements, forces and phenomena in addition to ancestral and metaphysical beings.

The trust and confidence that the Ifugao have in these beings allow them to face what is often a complex and frightening world with a great deal of confidence and understanding. They believe that the gods and other beings are approachable and can be influenced by the proper rites and behavior to intercede on behalf of an individual or the entire community. Generally the gods are viewed as generous and benign beings who enjoy feasting, drinking wine and chewing betel nut, as do the Ifugao themselves. However, the gods are quick to anger and if ignored or treated badly can quickly become ill-tempered, demanding tyrants capable of causing misfortune and injury. The Ifugao have created an extensive ceremonial cycle in which their deities are honored and feted (such ceremonies also ensure their support and cooperation). Some deities, although acknowledged, are rarely if ever called upon; others with influence over such daily matters as agriculture, health or fighting are in constant demand.

Of perhaps the greatest importance to the Ifugao are rice or agricultural deities which have the power to ensure bountiful crops and actually increase the amount of rice already in storage. To accommodate these plenipotent and often voracious spirits, an Ifugao farmer will hire a community artisan to carve a pair of wooden effigies (known as Bululs) which serve as a temporary earthly home to which the rice die ties can be drawn. Although Bululs (usually male and female together) are expensive and are viewed as notoriously demanding, they are considered a wise investment because of their power to augment rice production. While Bululs and other such effigies are treated as purely functional objects, they are nevertheless handsome and powerful forms that reflect the Ifugaos' inborn appreciation of aesthetics. The creative energy of the Ifugao embodies the values and principles of their deep involvement with agriculture, status and ancestor veneration as well as their relationship with natural and supernatural forces. Art (although the Ifugao would not define it as such) is an integrated part of daily and ceremonial life.

The Ifugao are highly skilled craftsmen renowned for their creations which in form and function have been refined over generations. Enjoyment is derived from objects that are both functional and pleasing to the eye; even such utilitarian items as baskets, spoons and bowls are as handsomely crafted as are artifacts and effigies made for the gods. Although secular and religious objects share many of the same images and decorative elements, only those specifically intended for ceremonial use are ritually empowered and in a sense, given life. In some instances there has occurred a proliferation of extremely specialized forms and designs to meet different applications. In no other area is this more true than Ifugao basketwork, which is robust, functional and extremely diverse. Although the primary elements of form and structure are largely dictated by custom and propriety, no two objects are exactly alike.

Every Ifugao artist has his individual style and personal aesthetics. Ritual boxes, gong handles, bowls and spoons, coffins, wooden beds, lime containers (of wood and human bone), textiles and even houses are ornamented and embellished for no other reason than that of the artist's pleasure or preference. Whatever the Ifugao make or use, there is generally added another dimension, as knowing hands see and shape the essence contained in a piece of wood, bone or stone, or shape from a lump of clay a form which is both functional and elegant. The Ifugao appreciation of fine and beautiful objects extends to a variety of imported items, including ancient stoneware and Chinese porcelain jars, bronze gongs, glass and porcelain beads, weavings from other mountain peoples, and a variety of shells (used for jewelry) carried up from the coast. These mainly prestige items are in many instances restricted (either by custom or cost) to wealthy and socially prominent families.

Restrictions also apply in matters of personal adornment: certain garments, designs and tattoos are limited to the nobility, or to specific parts of the body. Some ornaments can be worn on the legs but not on the arms; specific types of tattoos can only be worn by successful head takers. In recent years, however, both tattooing and head taking have largely ceased and now tattoos are only to be found on the elderly; trophy heads have all but disappeared. Although Ifugao daily dress is somewhat sparse, devoid of jewelry and consisting of little more than a breechcloth for men and a short skirt for women, ritual wear is colorful and exuberant. Festive and ceremonial occasions provide an opportunity for the Ifugao to don heavily coiled copper leg and arm ornaments, gold necklaces, earrings and headpieces, shell chest ornaments and girdles, boar tusk armlets with handsomely carved figures, precious beads, and elegant woven skirts, loincloths and jackets.