Historians And Archaeologists About The Iceman example essay topic

1. Explain why the iceman was so well preserved? (source one) It is said that a frozen body will stay preserved over hundreds, even thousand of years. During the first stage of investigations Austrian archaeologist Konrad Spindler researched the layout which had proved that the iceman's body position and placement of weapons were preserved in the same position from when the Iceman had died, it had also been proved that the body was initially covered in a thin layer of snow which had helped complete the freeze drying process before it turned into ice. The body had been so well preserved because of the depth that the Iceman was actually lying in the ground, which was near the watershed (watershed meaning a line of high land where streams on one side flow into one river or sea and streams on the other side flow into another.) This meant that a glacier would be able to develop above him throughout the next millennia without moving his position down hill. In this position he was able to remain buried, frozen, covered and protected by the cold over a period of 5,300 years as the worlds oldest, best preserved natural mummy. 2 a) What purpose do you think the tattoo served?

(Source 2) Scientists believe that the Iceman's tattoo's were first applied in 3,200 BC, the first evidence of acupuncture. Based on this information I believe that this 'cruciform tattoo' was marked on the iceman's body in order to serve as a medical and therapeutic purpose, as it was discovered that he suffered from Acute Arthritis, Worms and Diarrhoea. Dr Frank Bahr (President of the German Academy for Acupuncture) who studies the trends and patterns of the iceman's tattoos, believes that the cruciform, meaning cross-shape, tattoo and a master point tattoo on his back were applied in order to treat rheumatism. Bahr says " 'These points would still be selected by the best acupuncturists today.

' 'It is the most common combination for treating rheumatic illness. ' Bahr also discovered 15 other smaller groups of tattoos marked on the Iceman's back and legs which form an ancient acupuncture chart developed in central Europe, 2000 years before china. Bahr states "I was amazed, 80% of the points correspond to those used in Acupuncture today". 2 b) How does this influence previous historical concept of body art? Body art is one of the oldest forms of creative expression known to man-kind, cave paintings date it back to almost 8000 BC.

The spread of tattooing although presumed to have began much earlier was first recorded in Egypt during the building of the pyramids. When the Egyptians extended their empire, tattooing extended as well to civilizations such as Crete, Greece, Persia, and Arabia. Later on in 2000 BC this form of body art also reached china. With almost every culture influencing the practice of tattoo's, the concept ranged from medical purposes, branding slaves to even determining the coming out of women. Examples include: - In ancient Greek and Rome tattooing was used in order to brand slaves and criminals. Greeks also used tattoos to identify and communicate with spies.

It was during this period tattooing spread to central Europe and tattoos were used for medical purposes such as acupuncture which would later on influence the Chinese acupuncture society. - In the Marquesas islands they were applied to dignify honour and status. - Ainu people (western Asia) also used tattooing to show social status, for example a married women would have a specific tattoo. The Ainu people soon introduced tattoos to Japan who used them for religious rites- In Borneo, as a cultural tradition women were actually tattooists. They used tattooing to identify what tribe or religion a man belonged to. 3.

Look at source 3 how have modern scientific research methods and testing helped archaeologists place the iceman in to historical testing? Modern scientific methods and testing have made it possible for both historians and archaeologists and also scientists to place the Iceman in historical context by conducting the following: - Source three which shows us an x-ray of the Iceman's thorax can be used to analyse the bone structure if a human during the Neolithic time. Also a 3d scan examines the Iceman's broken ribs. - Dr. Klaus Oeggal, a botanist from the university, examined the Iceman's stomach contents by removing a microscopic sample from the Iceman's transverse colon which is part of the intestine past and using another scientific method by cutting a hole into the iceman and placing a endoscope inside.

This testing under a microscope and using the endoscope was able to identify that the Iceman had last eaten a meal of: - Bread made of einkorn wheat - the most essential wheat of the Neolithic period indicates that he had contact with a agriculture community. - Broken grains - The bran would have been used to make bread. Tiny spots of charcoal were found on the bread most likely because of baking on a hot rock or near a fire. - Some other plant - Perhaps a herb or other green- Meat - Unable to determine what type of meat the Iceman actually consumed, Oeggal was able to find traces of tiny muscle fibre and bone.

Scientists conducted x-rays and a cat scan where Zur Ned den was able to determine that what he saw as a minor bulge was actually a cluster of half-processed food which proved that the Iceman had not eaten for the last 8 hours before he died. - Removing bone, blood and tissue samples have been used to help determine if the cause of death was natural or inflicted. - Samples of his teeth are used to determine what type if environment he lived in. - Dna tests on the mitochondria genome are used to expose a common ancestry or a genealogical connection up to 10,000 years ago to today. - Carbon-14 dating of the axe indicates that the Iceman was 5,300 years ago And-Radio Carbon Dating reveals him as a 45 year old, with bad joints 4 a) Using the sources 4-7, what do these artefacts tell historians and archaeologists about the iceman? Sources 4 - 7 tell historians and archaeologists that the iceman was a developed and highly skilled craftsman who had a practiced understanding of how an object should be completed and who had the readily availability to only the best materials of his time.

Birch bark containers - An ideal material to make containers as it is waterproof, flexible, found on trees and decay resistant. This artefact tells historians and archaeologists that the iceman had a means of storage. Copper axe - constructed from yew wood measuring 2 feet and 4 inches long. The axe head shows that: - 99.7% = copper-0.22% = arsenic- 0.09% - silver This artefact tells historians and archaeologists that the iceman had often done copper work, and puts into question the copper and bronze age, Quiver and contents - The Iceman's quiver was a fur material which held 12 blank shafts and two finished arrows. The arrow heads were made with flint heads and his bow was approximately 6 feet long made from yes wood, the most ideal materials. This was an important artefact as it influenced the theory of a violent encounter after he was found carrying broken arrows and a bow in the process of being fixed.

Flint dagger, scabbard and retouch er - The dagger proved to be a ideal tool. It could be used to skin animals, clean hides and cut meat into strips. The dagger was flint tipped with a handle made from ash. It had two edges and could easily be attached to his brad ed scabbard which would keep it covered and protected. The retouch er was used to finish flint heads, sharpening points and cutting edges. It was made from lime wood grip and grained wood.

These artefacts tells historians and archaeologists what and how animals could be prepared, that the iceman was well prepared and points to a theory that he was a sheep farmer. 4 b) How did this challenge their knowledge and opinion of the copper and bronze ages? Before the discovery of the Iceman and the artefacts which lay beside him, historians and archaeologists have always used the term Copper age to describe a period where people began to use copper for weapons during 5000 BC and 3000 BC. Copper spread as people began to exchange goods for both rare and shaped mines. This age developed communication with coins, hieroglyphs and pictures. It was the beginning of human civilisation.

As the copper age came to an end the bronze age would follow. The term Bronze age was used to describe the period where people would use bronze for tools and weapons as their chief materi al. Although the correct dates can not be determined as the bronze age started and ended at different times in different areas it is estimated to have occurred during the time frame of 3000 BC and 1200 BC. It would be the compelling discovery of the Iceman's copper axe during our modern period which would question scientists, historians and archaeologists understanding of the bronze and copper ages. Under the impression that humans had not seemed to be melting copper until 4000 years ago we were proved wrong as the Iceman had found to be using a copper axe before this time frame, pre-dating the copper age up to 500 years. Another important fact was that the use of copper did not prove to be rare for the Iceman as his hair proved to scientists that he had worked with copper many times.

Although dates have not been officially changed as he is our only evidence of the use of copper before its time, it has raised questions for historians and Archaeologists such as: - Who else had access to copper as either a chief or rare material at this time? - Who else had knowledge of how to develop and use the material properly? -Where did he have access to copper? - Exactly how long had the iceman been aware of copper? 5) Source 8 shows a tassel with a stone bead. a) What purpose do you think this has?

I think the main purpose of the tassel and stone bead could be used for animals or be used to tie or attach objects. b) What explanation do historians give it? Historians mainly believe and explain that the Iceman carried the tassel with a stone bead for either a decoration or to be a decoration for an actual ornament. Though there are suggestions that it could have been used encase a repair would need to be carried out. c) What other primitive cultures use adornment? And what is it's purpose? During the Iceman's period of time adornment in cultures was mainly expressed by the use of jewellery for the wealthy and adored.

For example- 3000 BC Ancient Egypt Gold was the preferred material as it was uncommon and magnificent for it's time. It was used to create bracelets, pendents, necklaces, rings, armlets, head ornaments, pictorial ornaments and collars between 18 and 24 carets. These priceless items were used for adornment in the land of the pharaohs. In 1922 excavations by Howard carter led to the finds of gold artefacts such as the Gold funeral mask of King Tutankhamun- Ancient Rome 3000 BC 1200 BC Romans were well known for their use of sapphires, emerald, amber and Indian diamond crystals for jewellery pieces, the emperor's were known to shower themselves with valuable items, as well as roman soldiers. Other wealthy Romans would adorn themselves by gold rope on their clothing. And lastly-Ancient Greece 1400 BC onwards In Ancient Greece Beads were used as a form of adornment.

Amethysts, gold and pearls were used to create large shapes of beetles and flowers. The purpose of adornment in these early cultures were mainly to be seen visually as personally and socially acknowledgeable in there society and wealthy, as if they disserve d to be showered and expressed as grace and beauty with these items. Adornment also was used to make particular groups distinct, for example, an ethnic or soldier. Adornment provides colour, texture, shape and size. 6 a) What scientific methods did they use to find out what source 9 was?

The iceman was found two be carrying two pieces of Birch fungi (source 9) which were attached to strips of animal hide. Scientists were able to identify this artefact as birch fungi by examining the artefact. There results showed us that the unknown artefact at the time were two galls of fungi as they showed antibacterial properties and birch wood. DNA testing of the iceman also showed traces of fungi in his lungs. b) From this scientific testing what conclusions have archaeologists and anthropologist made about it use?

After many autopsy's, DNA testing and examination of the Iceman's body, scientists have come to the conclusion that although the Iceman seemed to be well of materialistically he was not a very healthy being. He suffered from acute arthritis, anemia and also Trichuris. Trichuris was identified by scientists when they found the eggs of a parasite known as the Whip worm in the Iceman's colon. This influx caused diarrhoea and extreme stomach pain.

Inside The Iceman's first aid kit contained many natural medicines. The birch fungus being one of them is believed by archaeologists and anthropologists to be used by him to treat his case of Trichuris. The birch fungus contains oils which are toxic once spread throughout the body, because of there toxins the birch fungus attacks the parasites. Birch fungus is equivalent to laxative once digested causing the Iceman to have high amounts of diarrhoea in order to digest the parasites from the body. Scientists believe that the use of the birch fungus would have given the Iceman some sought of short-term relief getting rid of majority of the parasites. 7.

The media have covered all aspects of the iceman, from discovery to scientific research and opinion. Read the article above (source 10) 1 a) Is source 10 a primary or secondary source? Source 10 is a secondary source. 1 b) State one fact found from source 10. One fact found was due to an autopsy of the Iceman's body which led British scientists to find the eggs of a parasite called whip worm, also referred to as Trichuris, in the Iceman's colon. This explains why the Iceman was carrying fungus with him, as the fungus acts as strong laxative which would attack the whip worm parasites.

2 a) State one opinion found from source 10. Although scientists are yet to determine the actual cause of death, some scientists hold the opinion that the Iceman in a state of bad health and food intake died of exhaustion in an unexpected snowstorm. 2 b) What does bias mean? Bias - " An opinion or feeling or influence that strongly favours one side in an argument or one item in a group or series" Oxford the Australian Study Paperback Dictionary.

An example of Bias in history can be found in many written sources, for example, in ancient times fortunate people would write about poor peoples concerns and their personal misfortunes. 3 a) What problems should we be aware of and what questions should we ask when testing sources for reliability? When studying sources and gathering information from them, we should make ourselves aware that sometimes sources may be: - Incomplete or damaged, example monuments, Artefacts, the body of Iceman- Documents may be bias, overstated or misleading, example newspaper articles or diary entries. We should also remember those points when testing for a sources reliability. Some other questions we should ask ourselves are: - Is this a primary or secondary source?

- Where was this source found? - When was this source found? Like a historian we should also learn to use our own abilities such as - reading, writing and understanding so that we are able to determine fiction or non-fiction, bias, actual facts and a conclusion. 3 b) As a source how reliable is source 10? Source 10 is some what reliable as we are given factual information with evidence to support it and strong opinions from scientists and doctors who have studied the Iceman's cases since it's discovery.

However, this can also lead the article to be Bias as there is no variety from where and who the opinions come from, they are one sided views which no one has attempted to prove or disprove in this particular article. 3 c) Who is the main audience or who is source 10 aimed at? Source 10 is mainly aimed at an audience of an older mature group both male and female who particularly take an interest in science and history as the article has been printed in "Science Today".

Bibliography

Konrad Spindler (1995) The Man In The Ice, Orion Books, London Chapter 13 Page 69-71 Chapter 15 Page 77-81 Chapter 17 Page 80-83 Toni Hurley, Philippa Metcalf, Jan Rolph (2000) Antiquity 1 Second Edition, Oxford University Press, South Melbourne Victoria, Australia Chapter 1 Page 5 Chapter 10 Page 103,104,113 Scott Fetzer (1991) The World Book Encyclopedia, World Book Inc, Chicago London Sydney Toronto Reference - B number 2 page 648 Left page right column.
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