Navajo Selection Of New Lands example essay topic

The Navajo were one of the great Southwestern Native American tribes. Their history, culture, and art and tradition will be discussed. The people who were going to become the Navajo tribe settled in what would be the mountains of New Mexico in or around the 1600's. Prior to that time the area was the home of the Anasazi (The Ancient Ones.) The Anasazi had lived there for approximately 1200 years but, for unexplained reasons, they abandoned their highly developed dwellings and moved westward and southward. A new group of people, the Athapascans, migrated from what are now Canada, Alaska, and the American Northwest southward to settle in the Southwest of America.

Some of this group of Southern Athapascans settled the mountainous region of New Mexico and came to be known as the Navajos, or as they prefer to be called, Dine (the People.) Other Athapascans continued moving southward and settled in Arizona where they became known as the Apache Tribe. In the 1600's the Spanish began to intrude on the Pueblo Indians of Arizona; the hostility thus gradually spread northward to involve the Navajos. In 1680 the Pueblos revolted against these European invaders and succeeded in temporarily stopping their suppression. At this time many Pueblos moved northward to join Navajo settlements. The Navajo then began to adopt the Pueblo agricultural, sheep raising and weaving methods that are still evident today.

The Navajo adapted well to the new farming methods but continued their warlike behavior of raiding Spanish settlements as well as those of their Hopi, Pueblo and Zuni neighbors. A major defeat for the Navajos occurred in Canyon de Muerte's in 1804 when a group of Navajos confronted a party of Spanish horsemen. The Indians were trapped on a ledge of the canyon with Spanish soldiers armed with rifles above and below them; all but one of the Navajo were killed. In 1848, after the Mexican War, the U.S. began to send troops and settlers into the area of New Mexico. As happened with so many of the tribes throughout the U.S., the government and white settlers eventually confiscated the Navajo's land.

During the 1850's and 1860's the U.S. Army built Fort Defiance within the heart of the Navajo land. The horses, mules and cattle raised by the whites competed with the Indians's heep for scarce grazing lands. When the Navajo complained of this, the commandant of the fort sent soldiers who slaughtered large numbers of the Indians' livestock. In response to this complaint in 1860 the Navajos attacked and nearly destroyed Fort Defiance. For several years there were repeated skirmishes between the Indians and the U.S. Army at Fort Defiance; finally, the Fort was abandoned only because troops were needed to fight in the Civil War. The Army returned in 1863 and General Carleton, Commandant of the Military Department of New Mexico ordered Kit Carson to move the Dine from their homes to a reservation that he had created in the plains of eastern New Mexico, Bosque Redondo.

Carson carried out the orders by slaughtering men, women and children, destroying livestock and burning their crops. One of the final and bloodier battles took place in the Canyon de C helly. When the Dine finally surrendered they were forced to walk from their homelands to their new place of residence several hundred miles away. This came to me known as The Long Walk.

In 1868 United States enters into a peace treaty with the Navajo Tribe granting it a 3.5 million acre reservation. In 1882 Executive Order establishes a 2.4 million acre reservation for use and occupancy by the Hopi 'and such other Indians as the Secretary of the Interior may see fit to settle thereon. ' In 1934 legislation adds some lands and defines the boundaries of the Navajo reservation in Arizona. In 1936 District Six, a 499,258-acre area within the 1882 reservation is recognized as encompassing all of the lands exclusively occupied by the Hopi. In 1941 District Six is expanded to 631,194 acres; Navajo families are forced to move and never compensated or provided replacement homes. In 1958 Congress authorizes Navajo and Hopi tribal councils to participate in a lawsuit to determine their respective rights and interests.

In 1962 in the case of Healing vs. Jones the Court rules that the Hopi Tribe has exclusive title to District Six and both Tribes have joint, equal and undivided rights to 1.8 million acres of 1882 Reservation outside of District Six. In 1966 Commissioner of Indian Affairs Robert Bennett issues a series of administrative instructions restricting any development in the 1934 Act reservation. This becomes known as the Bennett Freeze. In 1972 case of the United States vs. Kab into more than 50 Navajo families are evicted from District Six without relocation assistance. In 1974 Congress authorizes partition of the surface rights in the Joint Use Area. Relocation Commission is established and given responsibility to move those Indian families living on the wrong side of the partition line.

In 1975 after federal mediator submits recommendations, tribes are unable to agree on partitioning of the Joint Use Area. Navajo efforts to select relocation lands are blocked by non-Indian ranchers and the Interior Department. In 1976 Hopis accept $5 million from the U.S. for aboriginal land claims with respect to Hopi lands outside District Six. In 1980 P.L. 96-305 authorizes Navajo selection of new lands and provides for life estates to certain applicants otherwise required to relocate. In 1985 President Reagan designates former Interior Secretary William Clark as his personal representative to encourage the tribes to settle the dispute. After seven months, Clark determines it unlikely the tribes can negotiate a settlement because the Hopi Tribe is unwilling to negotiate. P.L. 99-190 give the BIA authority to construct relocation houses on ranch lands acquired pursuant to P.L. 96-305.

The July 6, 1986 deadline for relocation of Navajos from Hopi Joint Use Area Land passes; approximately one-half of the Navajos certified for voluntary relocation benefits are not relocated. In 1988 obligations and funding for home construction by the BIA pursuant to P.L. 99-190 are transferred to new Commissioner of the Office of Navajo and Hopi Indian Relocation pursuant to P.L. 100-666 (1988 Amendments). In 1989 Secretary of Interior Lujan imposes a new policy that no relocation benefits shall be provided to Navajos who have voluntarily left the Hopi-Partitioned lands (HPL) until all eligible Navajos currently residing on HPL have been resettled. The culture of the Navajo is very interesting and of the many beliefs they have, this is their theory of "Creation". The First / Black World was the beginning of time. In the First World, there lived various spiritual beings.

They were given Navajo names describing certain insects and animals. Altse Hast iin (First Man) and Altse Asdzaa (First Woman) were created. The beings couldn't get along with one another so they decided to leave through an opening in the east into the Second World. The Second / Blue World was already occupied by the Blue Birds, animals, and other beings that were in disagreement and could not get along with one another.

There was severe hardship so they decided to leave this world. First Man made a wand of white shell, turquoise, abalone, and jet. This wand carried everyone through an opening in the south into the Third World. The Third / Yellow World was entered first by Bluebird, First Man, First Woman, Coyote, and other beings. This land had great rivers crossing from east to west and north to south. One day, Coyote stole Water Baby from the river, causing a great flood.

First Man ordered everyone to climb into the reed to escape the rising waters. As the beings climbed out of the reed into the Fourth World, the people discovered Coyote was the one who had stole Water Baby. Coyote took the Water Baby back to its mother and the flooded waters began to recede. In the Fourth / White World locust was the first to enter the fourth world. He saw water everywhere and other beings living there. The beings in the Fourth World would not let the beings from the Third World to enter unless the Locust passed certain tests.

Locust passed all the tests and the people entered into the Fourth World. Later, First Man and First Woman formed the four sacred mountains. The sacred dirt was brought from the First World to form these mountains. Settlement in the new place began. The sacred mountains had been placed and boundaries were established. Also, the Hogan and the sweat house were placed.

The male forked-stick Hogan was made for planning and ceremonial events. The female round Hogan was made for daily activities. Kachina dolls could be considered either art, part of the religious Navajo culture, or even tradition. They are beautiful and are very artistically designed. On the other hand, however, they were used in the religious ceremonies of the Navajo. These religious dolls of the Navajo are also something that has been with them for a long time.

For centuries Navajo basket weavers have created baskets and rugs. Three types of baskets comprised the bulk of the production: a loosely woven basket covered with pine pitch was used for carrying and storing water; ceremonies; and large twined vessels known as 'peach baskets' were used for carrying larger loads. The Navajo people wove many beautiful rugs during their time. Most of their weaving was in part due to the fact that they had Churr o sheep that they had gotten from the Spanish. They could survive desert conditions, and they had excellent fleece for weaving. With the rise of trading posts on the Navajo reservation, woven baskets gave way to ceramic and metal containers, and basket weaving fell into steep decline.

Peach baskets have become virtually extinct, and pitch covered and ceremonial baskets were becoming increasingly rare. The Navajo had beautiful silver things too. One such thing is a silver bird pendant. Clothing for both men and women initially was deerskin for shirts and skirts. The men later wore cotton or velvet shirts with no collars, breeches below the knee, and moccasins. Women gradually wore the 'squaw dress', made of plain dark blankets.

A Navaho house is called a Hogan and is made of logs, brush, and earth. Summerhouses are also utilized and made of brush with a windbreak. They also grew corn as their main food source. They called it maize. Corn was an essential part of the Navajo nation. For many years farming has been a large part of the Navajo way of life.

It was used to supply food. It also had many ceremonies that went along with it. In conclusion, the history of the Navajo, the culture of the Navajo, and the art and tradition of these people has been discussed. The Navajo were one of the greatest tribes of the Southwest.